Union of International Associations - Research Papers / Articles https://uia.org/archive-tags/research-papers-articles en In the Global Village: Options for Moving beyond Binge, Whinge, Cringe in Local Green Accounting https://uia.org/archive/global-village <span class="field-label"> Author: </span> <div class="field-author inline"> Nadia McLaren </div> <div class="field-body"> <div align="center"><h2><span style="color:#000000;">In the Global Village</span></h2> </div> <h2> </h2> <div class="sub_title" align="center"> <h3>Options for Moving beyond Binge, Whinge, Cringe or Stinge in Local Green Accounting</h3> </div> <p></p><center> <p><b>Nadia McLaren</b><br />Global Action Plan International  (GAP)<br />Union of International Associations (UIA)</p> <p></p></center><br /> <p style="text-align:center" align="center">With thanks to Anthony Judge, UIA and Marilyn  Mehlmann, GAP for their contributions.</p> <hr /> <blockquote> <p><i>Finding meaningful and effective approaches to sustainable development, and which ordinary people can use at the local level, has been the primary goal of Global Action Plan (GAP) since its inception in 1990. GAP's main assumption is that many people want to help create a better environment, but often do not know where to start. Furthermore, people hold the view that they are powerless and that on the whole their individual effort will be negligible. </i></p> <p><i>GAP’s Community Lifestyle Campaigns and Household EcoTeam Programme provide a context and a supportive structure for collective empowerment and practical achievement in local sustainable development.  GAP provides an experiential learning environment for exploring lifestyle choices and effecting desired change.  It accommodates individual temperaments, fosters initiative and community skills and produces significant quantifiable resource savings. </i></p> <p><i>This paper reviews the experience gained by GAP with promoting technical and research projects on sustainable consumption patterns and behaviours at the local level.  It refers to the collection and reporting of results at the household level, the durability of GAP-supported behaviour change and GAP’s partnership with local authorities in over ten countries.  </i></p> <p><i>This paper also places local sustainable development within a global context by introducing some general observations and points for debate - notably “habit systems of temperament”, which by influencing individual and collective response patterns predispose the roles of various actors and their actions of choice. This paper encourages a mix of “temperamental” forms. It argues for a dynamic set of local indicators that can both track and guide desired community change. Such indicators would anticipate their own replacement by others more suitable to the change process in which they are implicated. This paper holds that indicators are not unbiased objective measures, nor is their choice innocent.  The indictors we choose today will significantly determine the quality of our future life</i>.</p> </blockquote> <hr /> <h3>In the global village</h3> <p>Local government is having an even tougher time since the Earth Summit.  Not only does it continue to take responsibility for that messy “dealing directly with public” side of government affairs; now it must also implement Agenda 21 on the ground. </p> <p>At the UIA in Brussels, I edit a participative knowledge base of world problems and strategies<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title="" id="_ftnref1">[1]</a>.  In 1994 we added the sub-strategies of Agenda 21 – over 2000 of them.  I have two very strong impressions from that time.  The first was the disconnectedness of the individual chapters of Agenda 21.  Any cross-relations between, for example, human settlements (Ch. 7) and women (Ch. 24), had been neatly snipped by the process of producing each chapter in isolation<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title="" id="_ftnref2">[2]</a>.  We have spent several years rebuilding the linkages (and inserting linkages to subjects inexplicably excluded from an agenda on global sustainable development, eg tourism (the fastest growing industry sector second to information technologies).</p> <p>The second recollection is that into each strategy profile we extracted from Agenda 21 we inserted the phrase:</p> <blockquote><p>“This strategy features in the framework of Agenda 21 as formulated at UNCED, now coordinated by the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development and implemented through national and local authorities.”</p> </blockquote> <p>What struck me at the time was the audacity of the brief.  And the "fluffiness" of many of the strategies waiting to be filled or firmed up.</p> <p>In short, local governments are now charged with the most visionary and complex assignment in human history.  Implementing sustainable development at the local level.  It requires cross-sectoral, cross-disciplinary competence. It requires new models of social contracting and social accounting.  It requires new modes of thinking and acting.  Moreover, it is at the local government – citizen interface that much of the broad public participation called for by Agenda 21 is expected to occur. </p> <p>Local authorities that are responding well to this assignment have been forced to completely revise their activities in less than ten short years.  Many are still fitting their former frames into new clothes, and adjusting the seams.  A more dynamic metaphor for this demanding period of transition is of a Formula I car being completely rebuilt whilst racing.</p> <h3>What is local sustainable development? </h3> <p>Part of local authorities’ challenge with steering community change, developing accounting systems and monitoring progress towards local sustainable development (LSD), is that there is no set of universal guidelines for LSD.  Is sustainable development a state or a process? Can it be captured and guided by quantitative indicators? How is it served, or badly served, by utopian and austerity thinking? Are there existing models? Is sustainable development sustaining; will it nourish us?  If so, how does it accommodate human diversity, much less the diversity of all living things. What lies beyond it?</p> <p>When you look into the meaning of the words, there is a type of nonsense in the term "sustainable development" (at least presuming that form of development promulgated up to now).  This ambiguity does not seem to matter – at least not in the sense that it hinders action.  Indeed it has its benefits.  Sustainable development as a conceptual icon has been able to capture the imagination of diverse constituencies precisely because it can hold within its field of meaning so many polarities and debates, understandings and misunderstandings. In this sense, it is not the term that is important, but the achievement of potential for integration.</p> <p>The United States has recently produced an “Experimental Set of Sustainable Development Indicators” (Appendix 1)<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title="" id="_ftnref3">[3]</a>. The set of 40 indicators is organised in two ways: (1) economic, environmental and social; and (2) long-term endowments and liabilities; processes; and current results<a href="#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" title="" id="_ftnref4">[4]</a>.  The first categorisation serves conventional approaches, the second focuses attention on the need to take a long-term view.  Among the 40 indicators, 30 currently show trends with a clear impact relevant to sustainable development and of those 17 were moving in a favourable direction.  The remaining 10 indicators have mixed or uncertain impacts. The point I would make here is that a vision of economic prosperity, a healthy environment and a just and equitable society cannot be fully achieved in any one dimension without compromising achievement in others. Negative trends are not necessarily bad, but probably are if they cannot be explained as direct compensation for positive achievement in other areas; uncertain indications do not necessary point to badly chosen indicators, though they might.</p> <p>Sustainable development is an optimising process; its indicators are not categorical but should be dynamic measures of an evolving process.  They should also anticipate their own replacement by indicators more suitable to the change process in which they are implicated.</p> <p>The UNCHS Indicators Programme of the United Nations Commission for Human Settlements (Habitat) has also produced a list of indicators (Appendix 2)<a href="#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" title="" id="_ftnref5">[5]</a>.  Of interest here is its compatibility with the UNDP Human Development Index (HDI), suggesting it will be possible to produce an HDI for cities.  Comparison between the City HDI and the National HDI should shine clearer light on cities as sustainable or unsustainable habitat, ie irrespective of national differences.  An Adjusted City Product per Person (PPP$) will be used for the economic component of the index, which would also incorporate the human development indicators “Life expectancy at birth”, “Adult literacy rate” and “School enrolment rates”.  The outcome should be enlightening for local authorities that want a wider comparison of their achievement measures, providing comparative indicators of global equity, “efficient” spending etc.; also beneficial in capturing innovations from cities around the world in a common format.</p> <p><br style="page-break-before:always;" clear="all" /><br /> </p><table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="center" width="75%"> <tbody> <tr align="center" valign="middle"> <td class="Normal" colspan="4" width="614"> <p style="text-align:center" align="center"><b>Choices found within the Lifestyle Change Movement</b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Cool! Where do I get some?<b> </b><a href="#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" title="" id="_ftnref6">[6]</a></p> <p><b>“Eco-Chic”</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>All right…If you insist<a href="#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" title="" id="_ftnref7">[7]</a></p> <p><b>“Light Greens”</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Er…would rather not, thanks<a href="#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" title="" id="_ftnref8">[8]</a></p> <p><b>“Gung-ho greens”<br />“Green bohemians”</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>You must be joking!<a href="#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" title="" id="_ftnref9">[9]</a><br /> </p> <p><b>“Nouveau pauvres”</b><br /><b>“Neolithic greens”</b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Put out magazines for collection<br />Use bottle-bank</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Sorting domestic solid waste<br />Own shopping bag</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Home composting<br />Using refillable bottles</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Buy no disposable packaging<br />BYO containers when shopping</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Timer garden taps</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Water garden at night</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Native gardens<br />No lawn<br />Slug traps</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Endemic plants<br />Vegetable garden<br />Use greywater</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" height="94" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Front-loading washing machines<br />Low-flush toilets</p> </td> <td class="Normal" height="94" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Wait for full load<br />Eco-friendly washing products<br />No chlorine bleach</p> </td> <td class="Normal" height="94" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Recycle wash water<br />Common laundries</p> </td> <td class="Normal" height="94" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Wash underwear, not outerwear<br />Wash only when really dirty<br />Composting toilets<br />Reed bed sewage</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Solar water heating</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Aerated shower roses</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Short showers<br />No baths</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Cold showers</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Super-insulated houses<br />Amazing glazing<br />Install timer switches</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Air-dry clothes<br />Low-e light bulbs<br />Gas central heating</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Insulated shutters<br />Ceiling fans<br />Point heating</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Thermal underwear / sweaters<br />No air-conditioning<br />No freezer</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Lightweight 200-mpg cars Lead-free petrol</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>LPG-cars<br />Public transport (in car cultures)</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Car-pooling<br />Cycling</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>No car</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Clothes from natural fibres</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>No fur</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Clothes from recycled yarns</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Second-hand clothes<br />No leather</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Recycled toilet paper<br />No junk mail</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Re-using envelopes</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>No newspapers</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Only reused paper<br />Grow trees</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Patronise local market<br />Cooperative grown coffee<br />No GM</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Support small shopkeeper<br />“Vegie coop”<br />No food additives</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Whole-foods<br />Seasonal food<br />Home-grown<br />Home preserves</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Local diet<br />Local produce<br />No processed food</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Body Shop products</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Make your own cosmetics</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Bike-sharing</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Car-sharing</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Job-sharing</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Sharing home</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Ethical investment</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Cooperative banking</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>LETS systems</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Economic communes</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Bird feeders<br />Butterfly plants<br />Wildflower gardens</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Bird watching<br />WWF<br />No pesticides</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>No agricultural chemicals<br />Hand weeding</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>“Feeding the ants”<br />Propogating rare plants<br />“Pee can” for urine fertiliser</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Cruelty-free meat</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Meat-free days<br />Fish only</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Vegetarian<br />“Chooks” in back yard</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Vegan<br />Spiking trees<br />Animal liberation<br />Sponsoring unfashionable species</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Miniaturisation<br />E-mail and Internet</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Efficiency / consumption meters</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Repair, recycle, reuse</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Windmills / Watermills</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Ecotourism (in exotic places)</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Rambling</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Local seaside<br />Family exhange hols</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>No air travel<br />At home holidays<br />Monitor intertidal reefs for hols</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" height="91" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Vitamins / high fibre<br />Aerobics / massage<br />Detox centres<br />No mercury fillings</p> </td> <td class="Normal" height="91" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Homeopathy<br />Complementary therapies, eg acupuncture</p> </td> <td class="Normal" height="91" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Home birth<br />Eating garlic<br />Meditating<br />No smoking</p> </td> <td class="Normal" height="91" valign="top" width="198"> <p>No addictions<br />Gathering wild herbal remedies<br />Communing with trees, devas</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Godparenting</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>2 children max</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>No children<br />Adopted / foster child</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="198"> <p>Tubes tied/cut</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p><br style="page-break-before:&lt;br /&gt;&#10;always;" clear="all" /><br /> </p><h3><b>A "common-or-garden" practice of local sustainable development</b></h3> <p>In GAP’s experience, it is sufficient that people can “know” what sustainable development means for them, without needing to agree or to understand in a semantic sense. Hence sustainable development may be tagged with such notions as “developing new technologies”, "consuming less", “sharing more”, “caring more”, "living more simply",  “becoming smarter”, “using less resources”, "making less pollution", “cleaning up” and so on.  It is very possible for people to make a bag of such associations operational at the individual and local level, and with intention, application and common sense achieve a great deal that is commendable.</p> <p>The table on the previous page illustrates some of the changes people are choosing to make according to individual temperament, coloured by politics and difficulty<a href="#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" title="" id="_ftnref10">[10]</a>. Our aspirations for an eco-conscious future will need to represent a blending of such particular slants.  I’ll return to this later, but I want to make the point here that, in our view, enlisting individual citizens to undertake <i>voluntary and informed lifestyle change</i> is the most valuable strategy to achieve LSD contributions from househouses.</p> <p>How beneficial are such approaches?  Is not to use leather a meaningless sacrifice in environmental terms?  How is the effectiveness of such actions measured? Why can’t we agree on a best way?  Why are there several possible “solutions” to the same problem? Which particular approach is better? Why does one approach work in some places, with some groups, and not others? What really indicates LSD progress?</p> <p>An explanation based on simple observation is that individual characteristics and ways of perceiving the world condition understandings and judgements.  That is why for some sustainability is determined more by what you do, for others more by what you don’t do, yet others by finding new ways, and still others by retaining old ways or consistent application. How much does this help explain what we should be using as guideposts and what we should be measuring?</p> <h3>Appreciating the role of individual temperament and character</h3> <p>In considering these questions further, I’ve borrowed Robert Cloninger’s psychobiological model of temperament and character<a href="#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" title="" id="_ftnref11">[11]</a>, currently favoured by those concerned with individual behavioural responses within community contexts.  Cloninger describes four “habit systems” of temperament:</p> <p>        Harm avoidance <i>producing behavioural inhibition</i></p> <p>        Reward dependence <i>producing behavioural modification</i></p> <p>        Novelty-seeking<i> producing behavioural activation</i></p> <p>        Persistence <i>producing behavioural continuity and consistency<a href="#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" title="" id="_ftnref12">[12]</a>.</i></p> <p>In the following table, I have assigned these four “temperamental” tendencies the shorthand names: “cringe”, “binge”, “whinge” and “stinge” (or “minge” if you prefer).  I have then extrapolated from the individual expression to the collective, assigning the terms, for convenience sake: “singe”, “tinge”, “fringe” and “hinge”<a href="#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" title="" id="_ftnref13">[13]</a>. Thus, the temperament of “Harm avoidance”, acting out as “behavioural inhibition” at personal level, is “cringe”; and at the collective level is “singe”.   Conventional illustrations in LSD of “cringe” might be “not mowing the lawn early Sunday morning” or “refusing to drive the car when it is possible to walk”.  “Singe” responses – behavioural inhibition serving the collective good -- might be “raising water prices to limit use”, “regulating emissions”, or “restricting parking spaces”.  You can have a fun time yourselves finding examples of the others.</p> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="center" width="80%"> <tbody> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="28"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="76"> </td> <td class="Normal" colspan="4" valign="top" width="515"> <p class="MsoHeading7" align="center"><b>Collective</b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="28"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="76"> </td> <td class="Normal" width="123"> <p style="text-align:center" align="center"><i>Singe</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" width="151"> <p style="text-align:center" align="center"><i>Tinge</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" width="123"> <p style="text-align:center" align="center"><i>Fringe</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" width="118"> <p style="text-align:center" align="center"><i>Hinge</i></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" rowspan="4" width="28"> <p style="&lt;br /&gt;&#10; text-align:center" align="center"><b>Individual</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" width="76"> <p><i>Cringe</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p>Harm avoidance</p> <p><i>Behavioural inhibition</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="151"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="118"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" width="76"> <p><i>Binge</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="151"> <p>Reward dependence</p> <p><i>Behavioural modification</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="118"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" width="76"> <p><i>Whinge</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="151"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p>Novelty-seeking</p> <p><i>Behavioural activation</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="118"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" width="76"> <p><i>Stinge </i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="151"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="118"> <p>Persistence</p> <p><i>Behavioural continuity and consistency</i></p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p>At first glance, the shorthand names “cringe”, binge  etc convey rather uninspiring personal qualities.  They indeed do represent basic, relatively unimaginative and uncreative behaviours.  However within each temperament there is a range of responses, which can be considered as a path of evolution into more sophisticated forms of expression.  For example, “cringe” (harm avoidance) evolves from “denial” to “avoidance” to “protection” to “mending damage”.  Such evolutionary trends are illustrated in the table on the following page.</p> <p>At this point, it is very clear just how different can be different individuals’ responses, and response capabilities, to exactly the same situation.  One person will naturally prefer one response strategy to another.  The preferred response of each individual (and indeed each individual family and each individual culture) to the LSD challenge of “enhancing public participation”, for example, is likely to be different <i>simply</i> because of differences in temperament. </p> <p>It is also important to recognise that there is no “right” or “wrong” in this table.  There is, however, a sense of progression towards greater capacity and inclusiveness as you move from left to right across the table.  Enhancing inclusiveness and capacity for inclusiveness (community building) is surely a key LSD strategy, and incidentally one for which I have never seen indicators.   I’ll pick up this theme of “absent indicators” later in the paper.</p> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="center" width="80%"> <tbody> <tr align="center" valign="middle"> <td class="Normal" colspan="5" width="633"> <p align="center"><b>Evolution of personal behaviours</b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p><b>Cringe</b></p> <p>Harm avoidance</p> <p><i>Behavioural inhibition</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="138"> <p>Denial</p> <p>Abstinence</p> <p>Stick to rules</p> <p>Depression</p> <p>Projection of problems onto others</p> <p>Avoid strangers</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="128"> <p>Avoidance</p> <p>Reduction</p> <p>Respect for authority</p> <p>Stress</p> <p>Procrastination</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="128"> <p>Protection</p> <p>Reflection</p> <p>Apology</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="116"> <p>“Bite the bullet”</p> <p>Implement tough decisions</p> <p>Mending damage</p> <p>Act according  to conscience</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p><b>Binge</b></p> <p>Reward dependence <i>behavioural maintenance</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="138"> <p>Seek material reward</p> <p>Selfishness / greed</p> <p>Conspicuous consumption</p> <p>Indulgence</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="128"> <p>End justifies mean</p> <p>Personal improvement</p> <p>Personal gratification</p> <p>“Keeping up with Jones”</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="128"> <p>“Do unto others…” Dematerialization:</p> <p>Reuse, Recycling</p> <p>Repair,</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="116"> <p>Personal fulfilment</p> <p>Spiritual nourishment Affirmation</p> <p>Celebration</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p><b>Whinge</b></p> <p>Novelty-seeking</p> <p><i>Behavioural activation</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="138"> <p>Self-serving complaints</p> <p>Blame others</p> <p class="MsoBodyText">Impulsive, and  often overwhelmed by events</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="128"> <p>Protest</p> <p>NIMBY</p> <p>Experimental</p> <p>“No pain, no gain”</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="128"> <p>Activism</p> <p>“Put money  where mouth is”</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="116"> <p>Initiation</p> <p>Instigation</p> <p>Open to change</p> <p>Test the limits</p> <p>Multitasking</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p><b>Stinge</b></p> <p>Persistence</p> <p class="MsoHeading9">Continuity, consistency</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="138"> <p>Scrooge</p> <p>Minimalism</p> <p>“Do just enough to get by”</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="128"> <p>Prudence</p> <p>Routine</p> <p>Accept others weaknesses</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="128"> <p>Austerity</p> <p>Stay  within means</p> <p>Accept own weaknesses</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="116"> <p>Discipline</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p>Returning to community development, in addition to temperament Clonginger recognises three dimensions of character.  The three measures are: self-directedness (relationship to and perception of self); cooperativeness (relationship to society); and self-transcendence (relationship to the world).<a href="#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" title="" id="_ftnref14">[14]</a>   Adding these character types into the model, and extrapolating again from the individual to the collective, we get a feel for what the evolution of LSD policy responses, programmes and their indicators of success might look like.  This is illustrated in the table on the next page.</p> <p>I can sense some of you thinking “this is interesting, but what has it got to do with day-to-day environmental accounting?”.  Let me now outline strategic aspects of the GAP approach to developing more sustainable consumption patterns.  This will interweave theory and practice as we have applied it to the individual and househouse.  In the final section of this paper I draw together some themes that weave a similar context at the level of households, indicators and local authorities.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align:left" align="left">GAP, short for Global Action Plan for the Earth, is an international family of organisations that distributes the Household EcoTeam Programme, a programme to improve ecologically relevant behaviour within households through Community Lifestyle Campaigns at the municipal level.</p> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="center" width="80%"> <tbody> <tr align="center" valign="middle"> <td class="Normal" colspan="5" height="15" width="624"> <div align="center"><b>Evolution of policy types and their corresponding indicators</b></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="123"> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="113"> <p align="center"><b>Stage I</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="123"> <p align="center"><b>Stage 2</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="132"> <p align="center"><b>Stage 3</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="132"> <p align="center"><b>Stage 4</b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="113"> <p>Unenlightened =</p> <p>Short-term</p> <p>Narrow view</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p>Reluctant reformism</p> <p>Tokenism</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Enlightened conservatism</p> <p>Pre-sustainability</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Sustainability =</p> <p>Long-term</p> <p>Broader view</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="&lt;br /&gt;&#10; #E5E5E5" width="123"><br /> <p style="text-align:right" align="right"><b>Character types</b></p> <p><b>Temperament types</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="113"> <p class="MsoHeading8">Self-directedness</p> <p><i>Individualism</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="123"> <p class="MsoHeading8">Cooperation I</p> <p><i>My family / Our mob</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoHeading8">Cooperation II</p> <p><i>Selective philanthropy</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoHeading8">Self- transcendence</p> <p><i>Global community</i></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p><b>Singe</b></p> <p>Harm avoidance</p> <p><i>Behavioural inhibition</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="113"> <p>Blanket restriction</p> <p>“No exceptions”</p> <p>Scorched earth</p> <p>The pain is worth it</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p>“Tough love”</p> <p>“This hurts me more than it hurts you”</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Facing up to the truth</p> <p>Sharing the load</p> <p>“We’ll tighten our belts together”</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Remediation</p> <p>Sharing responsibility</p> <p>Precautionary principle Internalisation of environmental costs</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p><b>Tinge</b></p> <p>Reward dependence <i>behavioural maintenance</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="113"> <p>Mutual reinforcement</p> <p>Disinformation</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p>Spin</p> <p>Cosmetic</p> <p>Growth is good for us</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Vision</p> <p>Image building</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Vision embodiment</p> <p>Collective fulfilment</p> <p>Shared celebration</p> <p>Intragenerational equity</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p><b>Fringe</b></p> <p>Novelty-seeking</p> <p><i>Behavioural activation</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="113"> <p>Fanaticism</p> <p>Zealotry</p> <p>Anti-establishment</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p>Unrealistic</p> <p>Eccentric</p> <p>“Blue sky”</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Imaginative</p> <p>Exploring alternate models</p> <p>Favour variety</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Creativity</p> <p>Risk taking</p> <p>In touch with minority views</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p><b>Hinge</b></p> <p>Persistence</p> <p><b><i>Continuity and consistency</i></b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="113"> <p>Hidebound</p> <p>Status quo</p> <p>“Business as usual”</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p>Historically determined</p> <p>Precedent</p> <p>Incrementalism</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Test all  possibilities</p> <p>Proven link</p> <p>Experimentally tested</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="132"> <p>Reconciling existing with emergent</p> <p>Carrying the load</p> <p>Intergenerational equity</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <h3>Working with attitudes and conscious behaviour change<a href="#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" title="" id="_ftnref15">[15]</a></h3> <p>The EcoTeam programme is concerned with sustainable consumption <i>patterns</i>, and starts at the <i>individual</i> and <i>household</i> level. By "patterns" we mean repeated sets of characteristics, behaviours, habits, lifestyles, ways of thinking about, and so on.  We support the development of attitudes that are capable of modifying patterns of consumption, which might initially be summarised as follows:</p> <ul> <li><i>There are problems.</i></li> <li><i>The problems are bigger than I am.</i></li> <li><i>But I can contribute to a solution.</i></li> <li><i>I can contribute as an individual, by my own actions.</i></li> <li><i>And I can contribute as a citizen, e.g. by joining pressure groups, voicing my opinions, and voting.</i></li> <li><i>I care about the earth, and I will do whatever I can</i></li> <li><i>and I believe that participating in this project/programme is a good way for me to contribute.</i></li> </ul> <h3>Critical programme development questions</h3> <p>Questions that are focussed in the design of GAP programmes are, for example:</p> <ul> <li>Are people in the affluent countries really prepared to adopt a more sustainable lifestyle?</li> <li>What does "sustainable consumption" mean for the man and woman in the street - big sacrifices or modest cutbacks, or perhaps even an improvement in the quality of life?</li> <li>How big are the potential savings (for the environment and the pocket book) of behavioural change?</li> <li>What is needed to help one person change behaviour?</li> <li>What is needed for a behaviour change to become established habit?</li> <li>How can the process become self-extending (become indepen­dent of constant reminders), to be maintained and progressively deepened?</li> <li>How can large numbers of people be reached within a reasonable peri­od of time with the least possible input of work and other resources?</li> </ul> <p>The questions are primarily behavioural rather than what is normally thought of as "environmental". GAP has therefore sought out disciplines which are relatively untapped by environmental movements. In particu­lar we have found it necessary to adopt a cross-disciplinary and cross-sectoral perspective.</p> <p>In the course of our work we have found that, while the environ­mental content of our programmes needs to be heavily adapted to each participating culture, the answers to the behavioural questions are much more universal.  By this we mean that the difficulties do not lie at the level of temperament or style, but at deeper levels of personal and collective disempowerment. Differences in temperament, when combined in supportive peer groups and directed towards common goals, actually strengthen EcoTeam success.  Experience of success tends to moves the team as a whole, and its individual members, towards the right of table “Evolution of Personal Behaviours” (page 7), building further capacity within the community for local sustainable development.</p> <p>In the following, we describe opinion surveys indicating answers to some of the above questions, outline the principles of empowerment and of social diffusion, and discuss the merits and demerits of information and behaviour-change campaigns.</p> <h3>Opinions and surveys</h3> <p>Many surveys show that the majority of people in the affluent countries would like to adopt a more sustainable lifestyle but:</p> <ul> <li>doubt that others feel the same</li> <li>experience themselves as powerless in relation to both environmental problems and to societal development in general</li> <li>don't know where to begin.</li> </ul> <p>A survey made by a foundation in Washington<a href="#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" title="" id="_ftnref16">[16]</a> showed for exam­ple that close to <i>two thirds</i> of the population value family, community and health ahead of possessions, salary and status; but less than <i>one</i> third believe others feels the same. A Norwegian survey<a href="#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" title="" id="_ftnref17">[17]</a> gives similar results.</p> <p>The Merck Family Fund contracted a survey of the US "market" for GAP's EcoTeam programme. They found that 43% of respondents were prepared to attend an information meeting about the programme. Statistics show that around 80% of those who attend such meetings actually join the programme. The independent con­sultants who conducted the survey conclude that the goals of GAP USA regarding recruitment to teams - that is, to recruit 10-15% of the popula­tion in selected neighbourhoods to an ambitious behaviour-change programme - is fully realistic.</p> <h3>Empowerment</h3> <p>The principles of empowerment are at the heart of GAP programmes<a href="#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" title="" id="_ftnref18">[18]</a>. Em­powerment can be viewed both as a condition and as a process. The <i>condition</i> of empowerment implies a feeling of being reasonably in charge of a situation. The condition can be general (I feel in charge of my life) or specific (when my children are threatened, I become a tiger).</p> <p>The increasing interest in this phenomenon over the past two decades may be connected with the spread all over the world of a growing feeling of powerlessness. Many people today experience a lack of choice in their lives at any level. This experience seems to be at least, if not more, wide­spread in the affluent countries as in the poorer and is thus an expression less of "fact" than of perception.</p> <p>An empowerment <i>process</i> is either inner (I learn to progressively experience more control over my own life), which can be compared to a general maturation process; or the result of external support, for example through an empowerment programme.</p> <p>A coach usually leads an empowerment programme. The task of the coach is to support participants so that they progressively learn to take (and experi­ence that they are taking) more power over their own situation, in gene­ral or specifically in relation to a given area, for example in relation to environmental questions.</p> <p>Empowerment is sometimes compared with or even confused with quite different phenomena, for example motivation, delegation or "cheering on". A significant difference is that the empowerment process is rooted in the individual's own maturation process and is therefore comparatively little dependent on external inputs. For a coach it is a question of bringing forth rather than pushing forward.</p> <p>The principles of empowerment are integrated into GAP programmes, including the EcoTeam workbook, the coach training, and the design of the actual EcoTeam process<a href="#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" title="" id="_ftnref19">[19]</a>.</p> <h3>Social diffusion</h3> <p>The processes governing diffusion of behavioural change have been the subjects of much research. The results are used primarily by marketers and advertisers in order to prevail upon as many people as possible to change their purchasing behaviour as fast as possible.</p> <p>From our perspective, sustainable consumption is likely to grow from <i>conscious, informed choice </i>rather than "market-directed” mechanisms.  Evidence supporting this view is provided later in the paper.</p> <p>We have developed our community programme based on the same research findings, and believe our programmes should be more effective and more sustainable than an equivalent public relations campaign because:</p> <ul> <li>we offer support for a <i>conscious</i> decision to change behaviour</li> <li>we help create understanding of the <i>reasons</i> why the new behaviour is preferable to the old</li> <li>participants are supported to establish the new behaviour <i>as a habit</i></li> </ul> <p>Some of the basic rules for effective behaviour change programmes that can be derived from social diffusion theory<a href="#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20" title="" id="_ftnref20">[20]</a> are:</p> <ul> <li>concentrate efforts on groups with natural contact with each other, for example neighbourhoods</li> <li>address first efforts to the "early adopters", or potential pioneers</li> <li>see that the early adopters' changes are publicised</li> <li>see that the new behaviour appears in some way successful to others - better, cheaper, trendier, and more fun</li> <li>not to waste time on those whose concerns are otherwise.</li> </ul> <h3>To campaign or not to campaign</h3> <p>Many studies document the strengths and weaknesses of information campaigns as a tool for behaviour change. One major work<a href="#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21" title="" id="_ftnref21">[21]</a> concludes that "education can make a difference in people's behaviour, but there are serious limits to what it can accomplish".  Information does not in itself lead to behavioural change.</p> <p>There is a considerable difference between a traditional information campaign (and an awareness raising campaign), and an empowerment programme.</p> <h4>Behaviour changes triggered by an information campaign</h4> <p>Traditional methods build on an information/media campaign directed at households or individuals, which is limited in time and often inten­sive (and expensive). The anticipated effect is postulated from a linear model without feedback:</p> <ul> <li>information</li> <li>knowledge</li> <li>attitude</li> <li>values</li> <li>behaviours</li> </ul> <p>However, we people seldom function according to this model. Instead, in the best case we experiment with new behaviours. When our imagina­tion is tickled, we search out new sources of knowledge. When behavi­our and knowledge "feel right", we can afford to change our attitudes and values.</p> <p><i>We can afford to care about problems to the extent that we believe we can do something about them</i>. Action therefore often needs to pre-date changes of values, in order to establish the feasibility of the project. With­out perceived feasibility, we tend to adopt coping strategies like ignoring the problem ("it's not really so bad"), preaching the impossibility of doing anything, or paying dues to someone who is supposed to fix it.</p> <p>An information campaign therefore starts at the most difficult end. Its effects are not sustained and typically decline to around 10% when the immediate effects of the campaign have worn off.</p> <h4>Behaviour changes triggered by an active, conscious process</h4> <p>The EcoTeam programme builds upon a cyclical, self-reinforcing process:</p> <ul> <li>caring</li> <li>meeting others who care</li> <li>seek out knowledge</li> <li>behaviour</li> <li>experimenting with new behaviour caring more </li> <li>feedback</li> </ul> <h3> </h3> <h3>Independent research on effectiveness of GAP</h3> <p>Research is scarce on long term effects of intervention techniques in producing pro-environment behaviour change. The few studies into the persistence of short-term effects have concluded that achieved improvements on environmentally behaviour tend to diminish on the longer run<a href="#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22" title="" id="_ftnref22">[22]</a>.</p> <p>At the University of Leiden in the Netherlands researchers have studied the EcoTeam programme over a number of years. They found that, on average, each participating household adopted 28 new behaviours during the programme<a href="#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23" title="" id="_ftnref23">[23]</a>. When followed up 9-12 months later they retained on average 22 of the new habits; and 43% of the households had also adopted a number of new, environmentally sounder behaviours so that the overall result (two years later) was over 100% (rather than the more typical 10%).</p> <h3>Effects on quantitative environmental resources</h3> <p>Improvement of pro-environmental behaviour is a valuable result of the EcoTeam Programme. This produces continuing and long-term benefit. The fact that significant environmental resources are saved, and there is measurement of that during the programme, is equally important.  The main parameters used by GAP are the consumption of gas, electricity and water and the production of waste. These are under the control of the participants and can be measured by them, usually directly and quantitatively. Data before, directly after and two years after participation are compared in the table on the next page.</p> <p><br style="page-break-before:always" clear="all" /><br /> </p><p style="&lt;br /&gt;&#10;text-align:center;&lt;br /&gt;&#10;" align="center"><b>Comparison of environmental resources used before, shortly after and two years after participation in the EcoTeam Programme (ETP)<a href="#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24" title="" id="_ftnref24">[24]</a>.</b></p> <table border="1" align="center" width="85%"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="22%"> </td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="20%"><b>Consumption <br />prior to ETP</b></td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="27%"><b>Consumption<br />shortly after participation  </b></td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="22%"><b>Consumption<br />2 years after ETP</b></td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="9%"><b>N</b></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="22%"><b>Waste</b> (kilograms p.p. per day)</td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="20%">0.216 (0.15)</td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="27%">0.153  (0.12)  = -29% **</td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="22%">  0.145 (0.12)   =  -32% **</td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="9%">37</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="22%"><b>Natural gas</b> (M3 p.p. per week)</td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="20%">0.299 (0.21)</td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="27%">0.237  (0.18)  = -21% ***</td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="22%">0.248 (0.18)   =  -17% ***</td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="9%">77</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="22%"><b>Electricity</b> (kwh p.p. per week)</td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="20%">27.2 (15.4)</td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="27%">25.9 (15.6) = -%  ns </td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="22%">25.1 (14.3) = -% * </td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="9%">83</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="22%"><b>Water</b> (M3 p.p. per week)</td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="20%">0.854 (0.38)</td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="27%">0.830  (.38)   = -3%  ns </td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="22%">    0.796 (0.33)  = -7% * </td> <td align="center" valign="middle" width="9%">75</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p align="center"><i>All data are presented as average weekly consumption per household member (except for household waste, which is presented as average daily production). Data about the used amount of natural gas is corrected for outside temperature</i>. <br />*=p&lt;.05, **=p&lt;.01,***=p&lt;.001, ns = non significant change.</p> <p>The data from the Dutch study indicate that shortly after participation in the Household EcoTeam Programme savings are achieved on household waste and natural gas, while the savings on electricity and water are not statistically significant and must be assumed unchanged for this group of respondents. In the longer run however, it appears that improvements have been achieved in all four domains. EcoTeam participants have persisted in reducing their consumption of environmental resources <i>after </i>their formal involvement in the programme ceased.</p> <p>From their analyses of psychological backgrounds, the researchers conclude that two personal characteristics - perceived behavioural control and habit -­ have become stronger during participation in the EcoTeam Programme.  In Cloninger’s terms, the temperamental quality of persistence has been strengthened, one may presume through learning and formation of new habit patterns.</p> <p>We believe the EcoTeam process is effective because participants have control and can choose to act in relation to their resource use and their own preferences. There is a choice of actions, always some that are basic, others that are more challenging.  The team offers a "safe" environment in which to experiment and to grow towards new attitudes and values.  Even the most “environmentally advanced” member can be challenged to improve their community skills by working on improving the performance of the team as a whole.</p> <p>The results in other countries are similar to those found in the Netherlands.  (In most countries, savings of energy exceed those in the Netherlands.)  With the exception of the UK, EcoTeams are using a programme which, while on the environmental level it differs considerably, at the design level is remark­ably similar.<br style="page-break-before:always" clear="all" />The elements of empowerment and social diffusion designed into the programme include for example:</p> <ul> <li>feedback at several levels <ul> <li>each household is enabled to monitor its own progress</li> <li>-  each household can see its contribution to the community and/or the national programme</li> <li>-  country results are summarised and circulated both to EcoTeams, to local and national governments, and to intergovernmental organisations</li> </ul> </li> <li><i>high degree of self-organisation</i> <ul> <li>-  each member of a team is expected to take responsibility for running a meeting, as "topic leader"</li> <li>-  topic leaders are offered special support to make sure they succeed</li> <li>-  the team has great flexibility in planning its programme, within a supportive framework</li> </ul> </li> <li><i>carefully designed support</i> <ul> <li>-  each team has a coach</li> <li>-  the coaches are trained to support rather than lead the team</li> </ul> </li> <li><i>teams are concentrated in community programmes</i> <ul> <li>-  the early approach of starting teams "wherever" has been replaced by a strategy of working in selected neighbourhoods within selected com­munities, in collaboration with local government and, where appro­priate, utilities or business</li> <li>-  each community (or group of smaller communities) has a project manager who is specially trained and coached</li> <li>-  recruiting to teams is concentrated in time and space</li> <li>-  community programmes are planned for 3-5 years</li> </ul> </li> <li><i>win-win solutions</i> are crafted by focussing initially on actions which save not only natural resources but also money</li> </ul> <p>Such programmes are now operating in many European countries, including Russia and Poland, the USA, and beginning in Korea and Japan. In addition, the EcoTeam programme is available in Turkish in the Netherlands.  In all these countries and cultures we so far find a common response to the elements of personal action opportunities, multi-level feedback, neigh­bourhood activities, and membership of a broad, grass-roots movement with positive links with local government and business.</p> <h3> </h3> <h3>A new type of policy instrument?</h3> <p>When traditional instruments of social governance and the new ecological tools of industry reach their limits, what is there next to use – rhetoric and the persuasive arts, belief systems, emotional appeals?<a href="#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25" title="" id="_ftnref25">[25]</a>  Considering the stick and carrot metaphor of social change (alternating pressure and encouragement); we know the sticks, but what are the carrots? </p> <p>What can move people to change lifestyle patterns?  We cannot rely simply on the attractiveness of new technologies. These may give us the power to do more with less, but the overwhelming tendency is to do <i>more with the same, and not the same with less</i>. </p> <p>Environmental policy officials of the Netherlands Government and the OECD, with whom we work, say that GAP’s programmes represent a fourth environmental policy instrument: the first three are carrot, stick, and education; GAP adds empowerment. </p> <h3>Household indicators - practical considerations</h3> <p>Let’s return to the table on page 4, which shows indicative substitution strategies for lifestyle change from “Eco-chic” (Easy…) preferences through “Light Greens” and “Green Bohemians” to “Neolithic Greens” (You must be joking!…).  If we were able to measure the environmental benefits of these items, we would find a generally negative association between benefit and acceptability.  What is acceptable doesn’t make much difference while what is environmentally powerful is unacceptable, ie hard to implement.  This is illustrated in the table below for reclaiming household nutrients.  Clearly it does not make sense to recycle the nutrient value of faeces and grey water in advance of the other three waste streams.</p> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="center"> <tbody> <tr> <td class="Normal" colspan="4" valign="top"> <p align="center"><b>Reclaiming Household Nutrients</b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" colspan="2" valign="top"> <p align="center"><i><b>Ease of collection and processing</b></i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" colspan="2" valign="top"> <p><b><i>Nutrient value</i></b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" rowspan="5" valign="top" width="54">Easy <p></p> <p>Hard</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="228"> <p>Garden wastes</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="189"> <p>Urine</p> </td> <td class="Normal" rowspan="5" valign="top" width="76"> <p>High</p> <p>Low</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="228"> <p>Food wastes</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="189"> <p>Food wastes</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="228"> <p>Urine</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="189"> <p>Garden wastes</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="228"> <p>Faeces</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="189"> <p>Faeces</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" height="26" valign="top" width="228"> <p>Grey water</p> </td> <td class="Normal" height="26" valign="top" width="189"> <p>Grey water</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p>Were it to turn out that the “Green Bohemian” lifestyle pattern is only 20% better than “Eco-chic” in environmental terms, why bother with trying to persuade anybody of its virtues; effort would be far better spent refining sophisticated eco-techniques.  If, on the other hand, the Bohemian pattern reduced overall impact by (say) 80%, then clearly it would be worth more of everybody’s attention.  The task would then be to make it palatable, streamline it, work out and develop the necessary infrastructures, weed out sticking points, add sweeteners and technical refinements; and of course, try it ourselves.</p> <p>The truth is probably somewhere in between.  Then a twofold strategy makes sense. The first would be to “cherry-pick” maverick lifestyle changes that are both highly acceptable and environmentally beneficial.  The second is to offer people a safe and attractive way of trying out behaviours that are on the edge of their current acceptability.  GAP does both.  The first table on the next page “cherry picks” some most powerful actions from the range relevant to GAP activity areas.  The second table gives examples of options that EcoTeam participant might choose according to their temperament (one trait that we may assume significantly affects acceptability).</p> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="center" width="80%"> <thead> <tr align="center" valign="middle"> <td class="Normal" colspan="5" width="614"> <p style="text-align:center" align="center"><b>Examples of most powerful actions from the GAP programme</b></p> </td> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="95"> <p><b>GAP category</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="94"> <p>Cool! Where do I get some?<b> </b><br /><b>“Eco-Chic”</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p>All right…If you insist</p> <p><b>“Light Greens”</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Er…would rather not, thanks</p> <p><b>“Gung-ho greens”<br />“Green bohemians”</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="161"> <p>You must be joking!</p> <p><b>“Nouveau pauvres”</b><br /><b>“Neolithic greens”</b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="95"> <p><b>Waste</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="94"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p>Sorting domestic solid waste</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Home composting</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="161"> <p>Not buy unrecyclable packaging</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="95"> <p><b>Water</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="94"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p>Water garden at night</p> </td> <td class="Normal" colspan="2" valign="top" width="302"> <p style="text-align:center" align="center">Local native plant garden</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="95"> <h4><b>Water and Energy</b></h4> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="94"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> </td> <td class="Normal" colspan="2" valign="top" width="302"> <p style="text-align:center" align="center">Experiment with showering and washing clothes less often</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="95"> <p><b>Home energy</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="94"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>Dress appropriate to the weather</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="161"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="95"> <p><b>Personal mobility</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="94"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="123"> <p>Drive economically “advanced driving”</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="161"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="95"> <p><b>Sustainable consumption / Products</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" colspan="2" valign="top" width="217"> <p>Buy ecolabelled  products whenever reasonable to do so</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="161"> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p> </p> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="center" width="80%"> <tbody> <tr align="center" valign="middle"> <td class="Normal" colspan="7" width="614"> <p style="text-align:center" align="center"><b>Examples of most acceptable actions from the GAP Programme</b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> </td> <td class="Normal" colspan="6" valign="top" width="529"> <p style="text-align:center" align="center"><b>GAP Activity Areas</b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="85"> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="85"> <p><b>Rubbish</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="76"> <p><b>Water</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="85"> <p><b>Energy</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="85"> <p><b>Transport</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="104"> <p><b>Products</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" bgcolor="#E5E5E5" valign="top" width="94"> <p><b>Empowering others</b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p><b>Cringe</b></p> <p>Harm avoidance</p> <p><i>Behavioural inhibition</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p>Recycle and reuse</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="76"> <p>Turn off taps</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p>Reduce bills for home energy</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p>Reduce short car journeys</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="104"> <p>No additives in food</p> <p>Buy ecolabels</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="94"> <p class="MsoFooter">Coaching others</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p><b>Binge</b></p> <p>Reward dependence <i>Behavioural maintenance</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p>Collect and dispose with neighbours</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="76"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p>Monitor accounts and gas meter</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p>Car pool</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="104"> <p>Support local shops and producers</p> <p>Request to stock  eco-friendly products</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="94"> <p>EcoTeam</p> <p>Peer reinforcement</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p><b>Whinge</b></p> <p>Novelty-seeking</p> <p><i>Behavioural activation</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p>Worm-bin composting</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="76"> <p>Low-flow shower heads and faucets</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p>Lag hot water pipes</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p>Advanced driving</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="104"> <p>Menu planning</p> <p>Avoid impulse buying</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="94"> <p>Topic leader in EcoTeam meeting</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p><b>Stinge</b></p> <p class="MsoHeading8">Persistence</p> <p><i>Continuity and consistency</i></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p>Establish home waste separation system</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="76"> <p>Change faucets and fittings</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p>Turn down thermostat of central heating</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="85"> <p>Service car regularly</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="104"> <p>Get to know products and buy consistently</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="94"> <p>Regular meetings</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <h3>Quality of Life vs Standard of Living</h3> <p>One additional benefit of enabling conscious informed choice of behaviour change, as GAP does, is that given the right sort of experience, people may freely choose <i>intangible</i> alternatives.  Such choices often reflect an exchange of Standard of Living for Quality of Life – like the cities of Freiburg, Aarhus, Curitiba and Groningen, for instance, which have</p> <p>decisively shifted the balance of transport modes against the private car.  At first there was a furious reaction from motorists and the car/road lobbies and dire warnings from business</p> <p>that this would spell commercial disaster.  But the result was quite the opposite.  Suddenly everyone was able to experience something they could not have experienced before: car-free zones, cleaner air, a more peaceful atmosphere, safe and rapid cycling, reliable public transport, carefree walking, a mosaic of contiguous public and private spaces. They liked it.  People wanted to be in the new liberated space … and so business also boomed.  To return to the <i>status quo</i> is laughable for them. </p> <p> “Quality of Life” is usually treated as a ghostly emergent property of “Standard of Living”, not something with a life of its own, and certainly not something that can be approached directly.  Even if they could envisage it, local authorities may be reluctant to encourage direct quality of life initiatives because they have no reason to think anyone want them.  However, consider the difference between walking to work along a busy highway and through concrete pedestrian underpasses compared with walking to work through a market square, pedestrian zones and parks.  Not only is the quality of the second experience higher for almost everyone, the threshold level to change behaviour from car use to walking is reduced.  Standard of living indicators, the sort that UNDP, Habitat and national and state governments would use, will never reveal that difference.  These are only detectable at the local government level, and only if the local authority has thought them important statistics to collect.</p> <h3>The proactive role of indicators in LSD</h3> <p>Which brings me to my final point. Our choice of indicators is not innocent. The indictors we choose today can significantly determine future reality.  We may like to think that indicators are unbiased objective measures.  They are indeed measures, but they are much more.  The transformative power of indicators is very much determined by their framing.</p> <h3>Remedial  performance indicators<a href="#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26" title="" id="_ftnref26">[26]</a></h3> <p>Most common indicators, for example those I have presented in the Appendices, might be called performance indicators.  Performance indicators clarify the situation as to how good (or bad) things are and how much better (or worse) they are likely to get.  They offer a description of what is (not) happening; as a consistent series they describe a trend.</p> <p>Within an operational context of scrutiny and rapid response capability, well-chosen performance indicators would constitute important warnings and activate course correction.  In the reality of local governance, however, performance indicators can monitor change but are inadequate to stimulate remedial action.  They can only activate change through complex pathways, or perhaps not at all.  There is no information in performance indicators that reveals whether the information they provide is capable of being acted upon. Moreover, there is also no way to be certain that performance indicators are changing for reasons other than the action deliberately taken to change them.</p> <p>Remedial capacity indicators would have two properties:</p> <ul> <li>   The capacity for recognising the significance of performance indicators; and</li> <li>   The capacity for generating appropriate response.</li> </ul> <p>They might also be termed “remedial potential indicators”.  Such indicators would indicate the capacity for recognising a problem, trend etc (implicit in the performance indicator) and initiating effective remedial action.</p> <p>Take the example of  “floor area per person”, an indicator in the Habitat list in Appendix 2.  This is a performance indicator.  It identifies the situation but provides no insight into whether this is problematic nor whether anything can be done about it.  Any given data may correspond to a state of “overcrowding”, or a tendency to live closely in families, or a condition of cheap and abundant housing, or a money and/or land rich community, or cultural preferences, or climatic influences, or most likely some combination of all or any of these.  There is no way to know from the bare indicator; and even for those with local knowledge it still may be difficult to know whether this is an indicator worth acting upon. </p> <p>Assuming there were a genuine overcrowding problem, there is no information contained within this indicator on the potential for remedying the problem.  If the remedial potential were high, then surely this should be given priority attention and resources.  If the remedial potential were low, then however great the overcrowding, and however much information was available on it, it is improbable that anything of non-cosmetic significance could be done at this time.  This would focus resources on other, more tractable challenges. </p> <p>The reciprocal of a remedial capacity indicator might be called an “impotence indicator”.  Impotence indicators would indicate a well-established inability to respond to undesired situations, for instance “<i>income gap = widening”; “incidence childhood asthma = increasing”.  </i></p> <p><i> </i>The fact of an impotence indictor should not be viewed in a totally negative light.  It may indicate callous inaction, but it more likely draws attention to a failure of all previous initiatives to change a situation and cautions against a pointless continuance of such effort.  An impotence indicator may also suggest that cause and effect are not well enough understood to make this a useful measure; perhaps the issue can be broken down into simpler components.  Lastly an impotence indicator may highlight a conspiracy of denial about true causes.  <i>“Cancer rates = increasing” </i>would seem to have a very low remedial capacity.  In fact, there is good reason to believe the remedial capacity is rather high.  It is argued that reducing environmental pollution to levels of 40 years ago would reduce most cancer rates to those of 40 years ago.  Why is it we choose to put vast effort and money into finding the “magic bullet cure” for cancer, rather than dealing with the cause?</p> <h3>Quality of life indicators</h3> <p>Local government and household indicators, because they are aggregated from smaller samples, are much more likely to relate to the reality of people’s lives than city, regional and national indicators.  Therefore, they can be powerfully involved in improving the quality of daily life.</p> <p>If “walking to work (school, shops etc)” is seen as a measure of sustainable living that a community wants to enhance, then choosing to collect statistics on <i>“number of people walking to work”</i> will provide some basic information.  It gives a snapshot indication of current performance, and may over time show some useful trend; but it is backward-looking rather than forward-looking and on its own is unlikely to move the policy further.  As an isolated measure it may even disguise what is really happening and mask ways to raise the frequency of “walking to work”.</p> <p>Another indicator, “<i>number of major road crossings walking to work”,</i> would provide a better sense of the challenge involved (although it does not remove the possibility that some other critical factor(s) have been overlooked).  This indicator also reminds municipal planners and administrators that the matter is important when considering new residential and business areas or new roads; it would give citizens ammunition if the data showed such quality was being reduced. </p> <p>However, compared with the two indicators above, the “quality of life” indicator <i>“number who <b>enjoy</b> walking to work”</i> would add completely different dimensions and present an interesting set of questions which may throw up new associations and solutions.  In comparative terms, description of a community with a high frequency of walking <i>because it is the travel mode of choice</i> gives even strangers to the community an immediate sense of what must be like to live there.</p> <h3>Meaningful and inspirational indicators of LSD</h3> <p>Last year I was at a conference in London jointly organised by UK, Dutch and Danish agencies concerned with environmental statistics.  The conference was called “Bridging the Gap” It explored the status, uses and value of environmental indicators. One concern was whether indicators could be relied upon to indicate what they were claimed to indicate.  One of the pitfalls, it seems, is that indicators can be rather self-serving, somewhat like the selfish gene.  Indicators showing no improvement just beg for more attention and effort.  Indicators chosen for political motives, which they help to further, are rewarded with a continuing existence.</p> <p>A plenary debated how meaningful are technical indicators for ordinary people, the media, decision-makers etc.  It seems that many indicators for which data are collected by government programmes are ambiguous, incomprehensible or so subject to qualification by their monitors that they are of little practical value to ordinary folk.  Moreover, indicators on other things, things which people would like to know about, are often absent. </p> <p>Clearly we can’t expect that all indicators to be as involving and comprehensible as the marks on the wall that showed our growth through childhood.  However, I believe we do deserve indicators that are better in touch with our values, that we can relate to personally, and which can capture the difference between the current unsustainable present and our preferred vision of sustainable future for ourselves and our children.  GAP’s experiments with collecting and influencing such data at the household level have some way to go. Nonetheless, the results to date are remarkable and are clearly benefiting from closer partnership with local authorities.</p> <hr /> <h3 align="center"><b>Appendix 1: Experimental Set of Sustainable Development Indictors </b></h3> <p align="center">U.S. Interagency Working Group on Sustainable Development Indicators</p> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="center" width="80%"> <tbody> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="36"> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="387"> <p><b>Indicator</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p style="text-align:center" align="center"><b>Impact of Trend</b></p> <p class="MsoFooter"><b>     +ve    -ve    ?</b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="36"> <h3 style="text-align:center" align="center">Economic Indicators</h3> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="387"> <p>Capital Assets</p> <p>Labor Productivity</p> <p>Federal Debt to GDP Ratio</p> <p>Energy Consumption per Capita and per Dollar of GDP</p> <p>Materials Consumption per Capita and per Dollar of GDP</p> <p>Inflation</p> <p>Investment in R&amp;D as Percentage of GDP</p> <p>Domestic Product</p> <p>Income Distribution</p> <p>Consumption Expenditures per Capita</p> <p>Unemployment</p> <p class="Bulletlist">Homeownership Rates</p> <p class="Bulletlist">Percentage of Households in Problem Housing</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p class="MsoFooter">       •</p> <p>       •</p> <p>                         •</p> <p>                         •</p> <p>                         •</p> <p>       •        </p> <p>                •</p> <p>       •</p> <p>                         •</p> <p>       •</p> <p>       •</p> <p class="MsoFooter">       •</p> <p class="MsoFooter">                •</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="36"> <p style="&lt;br /&gt;&#10; text-align:center" align="center"><b>Environmental Indicators</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="387"> <p>Surface Water Quality</p> <p>Acres of Major Terrestrial Ecosystems</p> <p>Contaminants in Biota</p> <p>Quantities of Spent Nuclear Fuel</p> <p>Status of Stratospheric Ozone</p> <p>Greenhouse Climate Response Index</p> <p>Ratio of Renewable Water Supply to Withdrawals</p> <p>Fisheries Utilization</p> <p>Invasive Alien Species</p> <p>Conversion of Cropland to Other Uses</p> <p>Soil Erosion Rates</p> <p>Timber Growth to Removal Balance</p> <p>Greenhouse Gas Emissions</p> <p>Identification &amp; Management of Superfund Sites</p> <p>Metropolitan Air Quality Nonattainment</p> <p>Outdoor Recreation Activities</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>       •</p> <p class="MsoFooter">                          •</p> <p>       •</p> <p>                •</p> <p>                •</p> <p>                •</p> <p>       •</p> <p>                •</p> <p>                •</p> <p>                          •                          •</p> <p>       •</p> <p>                •</p> <p>                •</p> <p>       •</p> <p>                          •</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="36"> <p style="&lt;br /&gt;&#10; text-align:center" align="center"><b>Social Indicators</b></p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="387"> <p>U.S. Population</p> <p>Children Living in Families with One Parent Present</p> <p>Teacher Training and Application of Qualifications</p> <p>Contributing Time and Money to Charities</p> <p>Births to Single Mothers</p> <p>Educational Attainment by Level</p> <p>Participation in the Arts and Recreation</p> <p>People in Census Tracts with 40% or Greater Poverty</p> <p>Crime Rate</p> <p>Life Expectancy</p> <p>Educational Achievements Rates in Mathematics</p> </td> <td class="Normal" valign="top" width="142"> <p>                          •</p> <p class="MsoFooter">                •</p> <p class="MsoFooter">                          •</p> <p>                •</p> <p>                •</p> <p>       •</p> <p>       •</p> <p>                •</p> <p>       •</p> <p>       •        </p> <p>       •</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p><br style="page-break-before:&lt;br /&gt;&#10;always" clear="all" /><br /> </p><h3 align="center">Appendix 2: Habitat’s Short list of key indicators</h3> <p align="center">UNCHS Global Urban Observatory, Urban Indicators Programme</p> <blockquote><blockquote> <p>  <b>Background data     </b></p> <p>  D1: Land use   </p> <p>  D2: City population   </p> <p>  D3: Population growth rate   </p> <p>  D4: Woman headed households   </p> <p>  D5: Average household size   </p> <p>  D6: Household formation rate   </p> <p>  D7: Income distribution   </p> <p>  D8: City product per person   </p> <p>  D9: Tenure type   </p> <p><b>Socioeconomic Development    </b></p> <p> 1: Households below poverty line   </p> <p> 2: Informal employment   </p> <p> 3: Hospital beds   </p> <p> 4: Child mortality   </p> <p> 5: Life expectancy at birth   </p> <p> 6: Adult literacy rate   </p> <p> 7: School enrollment rates   </p> <p> 8: School classrooms   </p> <p> 9: Crime rates   </p> <p><b>Infrastructure    </b></p> <p>10: Household connection to   </p> <p>     water, sewerage, electricity, telephone   </p> <p>11: Access to potable water   </p> <p>12: Consumption of water   </p> <p>13: Median price of water   </p> <p><b>Transport     </b></p> <p>14: Modal split   </p> <p>15: Travel time   </p> <p>16: Expenditure on road infrastructure   </p> <p>17: Automobile ownership   </p> <p><b>Environmental Management</b></p> <p>18: Wastewater treated   </p> <p>19: Solid waste generated   </p> <p>20: Disposal methods for solid waste   </p> <p>21: Regular solid-waste collection   </p> <p>22: Housing destroyed    </p> <p><b>Local Government    </b></p> <p>23: Major sources of income   </p> <p>24: Per-capita capital expenditure   </p> <p>25: Debt service charge   </p> <p>26: Local government employees   </p> <p>27: Wages in the budget   </p> <p>28: Contracted recurrent expenditure ratio   </p> <p>29: Government level providing services   </p> <p>30: Control by higher levels of government   </p> <p><b>Housing     </b></p> <p>31: House price to income ratio   </p> <p>32: House rent to income ratio   </p> <p>33: Floor area per person   </p> <p>34: Permanent structures   </p> <p>35: Housing in compliance   </p> <p>36: Land development multiplier   </p> <p>37: Infrastructure expenditure   </p> <p>38: Mortgage to credit ratio   </p> <p>39: Housing production   </p> <p>40: Housing investment</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <hr /> <h3>References </h3> <div id="ftn1"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title="" id="_ftn1">[1]</a> Union of International Associations, <i>Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential</i>, 4<sup>th</sup> ed 1994/95, Saur Verlag, Munich.</p> </div> <div id="ftn2"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title="" id="_ftn2">[2]</a> To see this for yourself, look at the complete texts of the UNCED Conference documents: Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992),  A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. I-III + Annexes) and Conventions.</p> </div> <div id="ftn3"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title="" id="_ftn3">[3]</a> U.S. Interagency Working Group on Sustainable Development Indicators, 1998. Sustainable Development in the United States: An Experimental Set of Indicators. A Progress Report.</p> </div> <div id="ftn4"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title="" id="_ftn4">[4]</a> <b>Long–term endowments and liabilities</b> include things like capital assets, natural resource stocks, or hazardous wastes – things that could affect well-being today and in the future.  <b>Processes</b> include things like investment or pollution that could affect either long-term endowments or current conditions.  <b>Current results</b> include matters affecting everyday lives, such as crime rates, air quality or the gross domestic product.</p> </div> <div id="ftn5"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" title="" id="_ftn5">[5]</a> UNCHS Global Urban Observatory, Urban Indicators Programme.</p> </div> <div id="ftn6"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" title="" id="_ftn6">[6]</a> Cost-free or very attractive items that go completely with the grain of consumer culture.</p> </div> <div id="ftn7"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" title="" id="_ftn7">[7]</a> Things that have a certain cost or require a slight change of taste or habit – and encouragement.</p> </div> <div id="ftn8"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" title="" id="_ftn8">[8]</a> Bigger changes requiring substantial commitment; often perceived as eccentric or reduction in living standards.</p> </div> <div id="ftn9"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" title="" id="_ftn9">[9]</a> Unthinkable drastic changes or limitations…for the vast majority, that is.</p> </div> <div id="ftn10"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" title="" id="_ftn10">[10]</a> Inspired by Peter Harper of the Centre for Alternative Technology in Wales, who introduced me to some of the more specialised cliques within the Lifestyle Movement, with its slogan “Live Simply that All May Simply Live” – “eco-cultural radicals”, who think that life could actually be better with altered lifestyles; “neo-puritans” and “reflective Luddites”, who think much modern technology is unhealthy or spiritual degrading; “eco-rationalists” who believe that the relationship between happiness and consumption is relatively weak.</p> </div> <div id="ftn11"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" title="" id="_ftn11">[11]</a> Cloninger CR, Svrakic DM, Przybeck TR. A psychobiological model of temperament and character.</p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText">Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1993 50:975-990.</p> </div> <div id="ftn12"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" title="" id="_ftn12">[12]</a> For “persistence” alone, the words in italics are mine.</p> </div> <div id="ftn13"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" title="" id="_ftn13">[13]</a> According to Cloninger, the four “habit systems” of temperament are based on an unconscious response to emotional stimuli., but are moderated by conceptual or symbolic learning.  The types are essentially independent phenotypically and genetically and are substantially (40-60%) heritable. An individual stabilises in temperament type by age 6,. but can be influenced by subsequent learning.  The first three types are thought to reflect separate neurochemical systems in the brain.  Novelty seeking, for example, is related to dopamine.  Various temperament combinations produce recognisable personality types.  Someone high in novelty seeking and low in harm avoidance, for instance, may be drawn to such things as scuba diving and hang gliding, while a novelty seeker who is also a harm avoider might look for safer thrills – trying out new types of food or worm composting.</p> </div> <div id="ftn14"> <p><a href="#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" title="" id="_ftn14">[14]</a> The factors of “character” involve a sense of self and propositional learning.  As distinguished from temperament, character changes with age, and it is very strongly influenced by family and other aspects of the social environment.</p> </div> <div id="ftn15"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" title="" id="_ftn15">[15]</a> The following text on GAP is largely drawn from writings of Marilyn Mehlmann, consultant to,and former Secretary-General of, GAP International, <i>pers comm.</i></p> </div> <div id="ftn16"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" title="" id="_ftn16">[16]</a> The Harwood Group, 1995. <i>Yearning for Balance:  views of Americans on consumption, materialism and the environment.</i>  Merck Family Fund, Takoma Park, MD &amp; National Research Council, USA <span class="ext"></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" title="" id="_ftn17">[17]</a> Dag Hareide, 1996 <i>Det Gode Norge.</i> Norwegian Society for Conservation of Nature, Oslo.</p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"> </p> </div> <div id="ftn18"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" title="" id="_ftn18">[18]</a> David Gershon and Gail Straub, 1991. Empowerment: the art of creating your life as you want it. Delta, USA.</p> </div> <div id="ftn19"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" title="" id="_ftn19">[19]</a> Our motto is “Be a drop in the bucket, filling it up, rather than just a drop in the ocean”.  Alternatively “If you think you are too small to count, you have never shared your bed with a mosquito”.</p> </div> <div id="ftn20"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" title="" id="_ftn20">[20]</a> Everett M. Rogers, 1983 (3rd ed.). <i>Diffusion of Innovations.</i> Free Press, New York.</p> </div> <div id="ftn21"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" title="" id="_ftn21">[21]</a> Gerald T. Gardner and Paul C. Stern, 1996. <i>Environmental Problems and Human Behaviour.</i>  Allyn &amp; Gardner Bacon, Boston.</p> </div> <div id="ftn22"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" title="" id="_ftn22">[22]</a> Dwyer, W. O., Leeming, F. C., Cobern, M. K., Porter, B. E. and Jackson, J. M. 1993. Critical review of behavioral interventions to preserve the environment. Research since 1980. <i>Environment and Behavior, 25,</i> 275-321.</p> </div> <div id="ftn23"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23" title="" id="_ftn23">[23]</a> Staats, H. J.  and Harland, P. 1995. <i>The EcoTeam Program in the Netherlands.  Study 4: A longitudinal study on the effects of the EcoTeam Program on environmental behaviour and its psychological backgrounds.</i>  Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Centre for Energy and Environmental Research, Leiden University,  Netherlands.</p> </div> <div id="ftn24"> <p><a href="#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24" title="" id="_ftn24"></a>[24] Harland, P and Staats, H.J. (1997). <i>Long term effects of the EcoTeam Program in the Netherlands. Study 4: The situation two years after participation.</i> Centre for Energy and Environmental Research, Leiden University,  Netherlands. E&amp;M/R-95-57.</p> </div> <div id="ftn25"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25" title="" id="_ftn25">[25]</a> Most politicans would agree with the statement of the (then) British Minister of the Environment “Governments have little experience in bringing about the degree of change that is required to attain sustainable development.” (Gummer, John.  1996. “Valuing the Environment”.  In: <i>Our Planet, </i>Vol. 8.2, August 1996, UNEP. <a target="_blank" class="ext" href="http://www.ourplanet.com/imgversn/82/gummer.html">http://www.ourplanet.com/imgversn/82/gummer.html</a><span class="ext"></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn26"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26" title="" id="_ftn26">[26]</a> This section of the paper has drawn upon the ideas of Anthony Judge, notably his paper <i>Remedial Capacity Indicators versus Performance Indicators.  </i>Paper prepared for a meeting on social indicators of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University (Warsaw, December 1981).  Published in: <i>Insights into Maldevelopment: reconsidering the idea of progress.  </i>Edited by Jan Danescki <i>et al., </i>Warsaw, University of Warsaw.  Paper also available at <a target="_blank" class="ext" href="http://www.laetusinpraesens.org/docs/remindic.php">http://www.laetusinpraesens.org/docs/remindic.php</a><span class="ext"></span></p> </div> </div> Fri, 12 Apr 2013 13:10:13 +0000 rachele 1926 at https://uia.org https://uia.org/archive/global-village#comments The role of NGOs in the UNESCO System https://uia.org/archive/role-ngos-unesco <span class="field-label"> Author: </span> <div class="field-author inline"> Kerstin Martens </div> <span class="field-label"> Year: </span> <div class="field-archive-year inline"> 1 999 </div> <div class="field-body"> <p>By Kerstin Martens<br /> University of Nottingham<br /> This article was published in <em><cite><a href="/journals?field_category_tid%5B%5D=235&amp;combine=&amp;items_per_page=5">Transnational Associations</a></cite></em>, Issue <a href="/sites/uia.org/files/journals/Transnational_Associations_Journal_1999-2_0.pdf">2/1999</a>, 68-82. All rights reserved.<br /> Article publié dans <em><cite><a href="/journals?field_category_tid%5B%5D=235&amp;combine=&amp;items_per_page=5">Associations Transnationales</a></cite></em>, Issue <a href="/sites/uia.org/files/journals/Transnational_Associations_Journal_1999-2_0.pdf">2/1999</a>, 68-82. Tous droits réservés.</p> <p><b>Introduction<sup> 1</sup></b></p> <p>Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) (2) play an increasingly important role in world politics. International non-governmental agencies, such as Greenpeace, Amnesty International or Médecins Sans Frontières draw attention to issues of world-wide concern, they promote international co-operation and they have a significant impact on the global dissemination of ideas, values and knowledge. Using the words of the former secretary-general of the United Nations Organisation (UN), Boutros Boutros-Ghali, "[n]ongovernmental organizations are now considered full participants in international life" (1996:7).</p> <p>NGOs are not a recent phenomenon; they have existed for the last two centuries. However, in recent years, particularly in the late-1980s, the number of NGOs has dramatically shot up. In 1956, the Union of International Associations (UIA) merely recorded 973 NGOs. In 1977, it registered already more than 2500 NGOs. Only five years later, the number of NGOs had again almost doubled (1997:1745). In the developing world the mushrooming of new NGOs is particularly significant. In the Philippines, a growth by 148% of all registered NGOs was noted for the period between 1984 and 1993. In Kenya, the number of NGOs even grew by 184% between 1978 and 1987 (Clarke 1998:36).</p> <p>In practised international politics NGOs have <i>official</i> relationships only with intergovernmental organisations (IGOs). IGOs formally incorporate non-governmental organisations by granting them a legal status. For this reason, intergovernmental organisations, such as the UN, serve as the "transparent point of observation" (Gordenker/ Weiss 1995<i>a</i>: 357) to explore the realm of the ?phenomenon NGO?. Within the UN family, the relationship between NGOs and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) has repeatedly been recognised as more sophisticated than between NGOs and any other UN body (Hüfner 1996; Hoggot 1996; Hüfner 1995; Merle 1988; Fozein-Kwanke 1986; Sewell 1975). This is so, because UNESCO?s system of classification takes into account not only the size and representative character of an NGO but also its ability to efficiently contribute to the organisation?s objectives (Feld/ Jordan 1988:217). In return, NGOs could be heavily involved in various stages of planning and execution of UNESCO programmes and may receive direct subventions from the IGO (Feld/ Jordan 1988:222).</p> <p>Furthermore, UNESCO itself gained in attraction and importance. Since its reform process commenced in 1988, the IGO became more transparent in its intra-organisational structure and more efficient in the fulfilment of purpose. New working methods, improvements in administration and financial management increased the impact and significance of the organisation. Moreover, the end of the Cold War contributed to draw attention to ?low politics? issues, such as human rights, the environment, population, communications or peace education, most of which fall under the objectives of UNESCO. Consequently, countries like the UK, which had severely criticised and finally withdrew from UNESCO, re-entered the organisation after a 12-year absence.</p> <p>In this article, I will explore the relationship between non-governmental and governmental actors in more detail. In the case study of NGOs and UNESCO, particular attention will be paid to the statutory framework for integrating non-governmental agencies in the UNESCO system since 1995 when new "Directives concerning the Relations with NGOs" became introduced. Leading questions are:</p> <ol> <li>Does the growing importance of NGOs in world politics lead to a further integration of NGOs and non-governmental policies into international governmental bodies?</li> <li>Since the relationship between NGOs and UNESCO has always been especially intense, does their relationship reflect the increasing influence of NGOs on world politics in particular?</li> </ol> <p>It is the aim of this work to demonstrate through the case study of NGOs at UNESCO, that the integration of NGOs into intergovernmental bodies is not clear evidence of the growing importance of non-governmental agencies. The case study of NGOs at UNESCO demonstrates that the process of NGO integration into intergovernmental bodies neither necessarily continues nor do NGOs exclusively arise from outside the intergovernmental framework. On the contrary, the creation of NGOs by UNESCO (due to the nature of UNESCO itself) and the decrease in associated NGOs (due to UNESCO?s reform process) will be shown and analysed. As a result, it will be demonstrated that the nature of an NGO being associated with an intergovernmental body has to be considered in greater depth in academic research.</p> <p>.</p> <p><b>Challenges of Doing Research on NGOs and UNESCO</b></p> <p>Research in the area of NGOs and UNESCO is surrounded by various ?deficiencies? of adequate literature. Firstly, theoretical works on NGOs are rare. Although NGOs as a subject of examination increasingly gained attention within the last two decades, <i>political</i> scientists have made a rather small contribution to their analysis (Clarke 1998:37; Gordenker/ Weiss 1995<i>a</i>:358). Most books or journal articles on NGOs are relatively dissatisfying. They tend to be of rather narrative character and miss out on comprehensive analysis. Literature on NGOs often merely describes a single major NGO - for example Amnesty International, the Red Cross or Greenpeace - , an individual NGO project or a particular aspect of NGO activity, such as human rights, humanitarian intervention, environment or gender. As a result, works on NGOs tend to be primarily empirical in order to describe NGO activity (Cerny 1997:14).</p> <p>Of the existing theoretical works, many of the English studies are based on only a specific aspect of NGO activity, in particular, the study of environmental NGOs (Willetts 1996<i>c</i>; Willetts 1996<i>d</i>; Wapner 1995; Princen 1994; Finger 1994<i>a</i>). French literature tends to be more concerned with legal aspects and mainly focuses on the (non)recognition of NGOs in International Law (Beigbeder 1992; Fozein-Kwanke 1986; Bettati/Dupuy 1986).</p> <p>When analysing NGOs in relation to international governmental organisations, scholars almost exclusively concentrate on the consultative status of NGOs at the United Nations Organisation. In this case, the relationship between NGOs and the ECOSOC gains the most attraction (Willetts 1996<i>b</i>; Hüfner 1996; Gordenker/ Weiss 1995<i>a</i>; Schulze 1994). Studies on particular issue-areas and the UN, again, mainly focus on environmental NGOs and the respective UN bodies (Imber 1996; Morphet 1996; Willetts 1996<i>d</i>;Conca 1995; Princen 1995; Finger 1994<i>b</i>) or human rights NGOs in the UN system (Boyle 1995; Brett 1995; Connors 1996; Cook 1996; Gaer 1995). As a result, there is no systematic study on NGO consultation at the UN (Gordenker/Weiss 1995<i>b</i>:555), which makes theory-building "a hazardous, if not totally nonfeasible, undertaking" (Gordenker/ Weiss 1995<i>b</i>:555).</p> <p>Secondly, the relationship between NGOs and UNESCO has been very poorly analysed in academic research. Although many studies on NGOs at the UN mention the relationship between UNESCO and NGOs as particularly intense, none has comprehensively analysed it yet.<br /> </p> <p><b><font size="+1">Transforming Relations: NGOs at UNESCO</font></b></p> <p>Co-operation between NGOs and UNESCO dates back to the establishment of the intergovernmental organisation in 1945. Over the years, the working relations with NGOs increased in quality and quantity so that a sophisticated system of regulations was soon needed (Hoggart 1996:101). In 1966, UNESCO adopted supplementary "Directives<i> </i>concerning UNESCO?s relations with non-governmental organisations"<i> (Directives 1966) </i>which set out the statutory framework for the NGO-UNESCO relationship in more detail. In 1995, the classification of NGOs at UNESCO became re-organised andnew directives (<i>Directives 1995</i>)<i> </i>were adopted. Today, UNESCO ? by their own account ? maintains regular relations of co-operation with 588 NGOs and approximately another 1000 to 1200 co-operate with UNESCO on an <i>ad hoc</i> basis (Doc. 152 EX/40 1997:12; UNESCO?s New Partners 1998).</p> <p><b>UNESCO itself in the beginning</b></p> <p>The close relationship between UNESCO and NGOs is understandable by briefly expounding the establishment and the nature of UNESCO. It explains the reasons for the particular intense relations between UNESCO and NGOs. When UNESCO was founded in 1945, it was of great contention how much non-governmental influence should be given to the new organisation. Above all, the question of whether the organisation was to be governmental or non-governmental became an area of conflict (Hüfner/ Reuther 1996:12; Merkel 1996:94; Kotschnig 1957:551). During the preparations on the drafts, it had been widely argued that the new organisation should not necessarily be an intergovernmental body in order to protect cultural, scientific and educational issues from political and ideological considerations. Particular NGOs participating at the founding conference spoke for a non-governmental organisation such as the predecessor of UNESCO, the non-governmental International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation (IIIC, founded in 1925).</p> <p>The French draft promoted for an organisation which also includes individuals (Sewell 1975:74). In this proposal, the new organisation was supposed to have a trinomial structure with each part having the same rights: a representation of the governments, national committees and civil society (NGOs) (Goldbach 1995:36). The French proposal particularly emphasised that the organisation should encompass the intellectual <i>élite</i> of its member-states (Kotschnig 1957:551). However, this proposal was rejected, and the advocates for an integration of UNESCO into the intergovernmental family of the UN bodies won through, so that the governmental UNESCO replaced the non-governmental IIIC.</p> <p>Another point of great controversy during the discussions on the foundation of UNESCO was the scope of activity the new organisation should encompass. Some were in favour of an organisation working on educational and cultural matters only (?UNECO?), others viewed scientific matters as necessary to be included in the new organisation. As a result, the objectives and the workload of UNESCO are extremely broad. It encompasses the three different sectors, "Education", "Science" and "Culture", which in itself surround various differentiated sectors. In this context, it had been laid down by the founding conference in London, that UNESCO could co-operate with non-governmental organisations concerned with subject matters within UNESCO?s scope of activity, particularly in technical questions, and that UNESCO might also create new organisations if necessary (Huxley 1973:17; Stosic 1964:270).</p> <p><b>Creation and Expansion of NGOs by UNESCO</b></p> <p>UNESCO documents describe NGOs as small-scale organisations of civil society, which become incorporated into intergovernmental organisations in order to form links to governments. The following quotations from UNESCO documents give an account of this viewpoint:</p> <ol> <li><i>"Stemming from private initiative, these organizations </i>[NGOs]<i> form the natural link between governments and peoples" </i>(CPX-80/WS/8 1980:4)</li> <li><i>"Thus, right from its inception, UNESCO, as an intergovernmental institution, sought to collaborate with international non-governmental organizations (NGOs). These organisations are the outcome of private initiative and, as far as the fulfilment of Unesco?s purposes is concerned, they constitute a natural link between governments and peoples"</i> (BRX/RIO.2/95/INF 1995:1; 124 EX/INF.5 1986: Annex 1)</li> <li><i>"In any case, the functioning of an organization, whether it be of the umbrella or any other type, should make it possible for the concern, options and contributions of its grass-roots members ? individuals, national sections or international associations/federations ? to reach the top" </i>(28 C/COM I/INF.2 1995:3)</li> </ol> <p>However, a closer look at the origins of NGOs associated with UNESCO reveals, that many NGOs at UNESCO are ?home-made?. This is to say, rather than ?<i>stemming from private initiative?</i>, many NGOs are created at the auspices of the IGO, as it had been agreed on at the founding conference of UNESCO in London. UNESCO?s creation and expansion of NGOs distinguishes the UN body from other international governmental organisations (Sur 1995:412). In this respect, UNESCO even is exceptional (Merle 1988:389). Most of these NGOs are umbrella organisations which co-ordinate national organisations. All in all, UNESCO founded 25 of these super-NGOs in the period till 1965 (Merkel 1996:95).</p> <p>Furthermore, UNESCO?s early NGO policy demonstrates that the IGO maintained close working relations with particular NGOs in order to reduce its own areas of responsibility. Since UNESCO encompasses different sectors and it is also involved in documentation and archives, sports, communications and the international protection of human rights, it became necessary to share tasks and responsibilities with other associated organisations in order to manage the immense workload (Kotschnig 1957:560). Firstly, UNESCO created many NGOs itself in order to hand over specific tasks or whole areas of responsibility to non-governmental organisations. One of the major NGOs, which became founded by UNESCO in 1946, is the International Council of Museums (ICOM). This NGO took on the assignment of establishing and running a common Documentation Centre on museums. "UNESCO entrusted it with the task of running its [UNESCO?s] documentation centre" (Lacoste 1994:30).</p> <p>Secondly, UNESCO guaranteed direct subventions to existing NGOs in order to avoid setting up UNESCO programmes in the areas in which these NGOs were already involved (Williams 1987:267). In the extreme case some NGOs simply carried out specific projects on the behalf of UNESCO (Kotschnig 1957:562). As a result, most of these NGOs became financially dependent on UNESCO, since UNESCO was the primary source of income (Kotschnig 1957:563). Some NGOs received up to 80% of their budget from UNESCO (Goldbach 1995:56). Thirdly, UNESCO simply withdrew from certain areas of activity in favour of supporting new NGOs which had similar objectives to UNESCO?s (Kotschnig 1957:579). For example, the World Wild Fund For Nature (WWF) was founded in 1961 through the initiative of another NGO with close links to UNESCO, in order to mobilise the public and raise funds for environmental questions. In the years before the establishment of the WWF, most of these tasks had been run by UNESCO itself (Morphet 1996:142).</p> <p>Associated NGOs adopted and promoted UNESCO?s objectives. As the Director-General figured out, the American Commission for International Educational Reconstruction, an umbrella organisation for 200 national volunteer organisations "worked tirelessly for UNESCO?s campaign for educational, scientific and cultural reconstruction" (in: Lacoste 1994:34). Other NGOs (partly) became assistant institutions to implement UNESCO programmes. The Pacific Islands New Association (PINA) was commended for its particular work in UNESCO?s sense. A UNESCO document mentioned that "[c]o-operation between this NGO and UNESCO has existed for several years, including contractual implementation of programme activities, which was highly regarded by the Communications Sector" (Doc. 151 EX/ONG.2 Add 1997). Also various development programmes were set up and directed by UNESCO which offered close collaboration with interested NGOs (Merle 1988:402).</p> <p>This implies that for UNESCO, NGOs are auxiliary bodies which exercise or implement UNESCO objectives. Documents clearly expose UNESCO?s purposes and profits of close working relations with NGOs: <i>1."The purpose of all these arrangements is to promote the objectives of Unesco" </i>(CPX-80/WS/8 1980:4)</p> <p><i>2. "Programmes and projects ... financed by the United Nations organizations include often NGOs as implementing partners"</i> (152 EX/40 1997:v) The example of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) incorporates and reflects the variously aspects of the NGO-UNESCO relationship in particular. ICSU was founded in 1931 "to promote international scientific activity in the different branches of science and their applications for the benefit of humanity" (ICSU Yearbook 1997:1). Today, ICSU is the most important NGO in natural sciences which co-ordinates individuals, national and international NGOs. For Baker, former Executive Secretary of ICSU, this is mainly due to the creation of UNESCO and its payment of subventions (Baker 1997).</p> <p>ICSU became closely linked to UNESCO in 1946. For UNESCO, the agreement with ICSU was the first with an NGO and became greatly useful for UNESCO (Reuther 1996:141). Particularly during the first years of UNESCO, ICSU gave the IGO a lot of important and valuable advice on questions in its respective fields of competence (Huxley 1973:17). With the introduction of different categories of relations with NGOs in 1960, ICSU was immediately admit to the highest category (category A); in 1995, it was admitted to the highest status of relations (Formal Associate Relations).</p> <p>Since 1947, ICSU received yearly subventions from UNESCO. The first years, about 85% of ICSU?s budget came from UNESCO (Baker 1997; Michaux 1992:16). UNESCO also provided ICSU with secretarial assistance, e.g. the disposal of offices in UNESCO?s headquarters in Paris, and even undertook to pay staff salaries (Morphet 1996:118; Lacoste 1994:30). ICSU became the "major single beneficiary of UNESCO aid" (Kotschnig 1957:560). As a result, links between ICSU and UNESCO became ever closer. UNESCO enhanced close co-operation with ICSU in planning and carrying out of scientific activities (Doc. CPX-81/WS/11 1981:3; Doc. NGO/CONF.18/7 1981:3), it sponsors ICSU for more than 600 congresses and symposia each year, in which both organisations have joint programmes in various academic fields and projects (Lacoste 1994:30), and ICSU representatives and UNESCO officials even changed offices and positions (Baker 1997). In 1972, ICSU?s headquarters was shifted to Paris.</p> <p>UNESCO?s subventions to ICSU "has always been used to support those activities of ICSU bodies which further UNESCO?s objectives" (ICSU Yearbook 1997:315; ICSU Partners 1998). Under the new arrangements, again, ICSU has agreed to mainly further common objectives (ICSU Yearbook 1997:315). The mutual success of such close relationship then inspired UNESCO to created other organisation under its aegis, patterned on the example of ICSU (Baker 1997).</p> <p><b>The UNESCO Crisis in the 1980s and its Consequences</b></p> <p>The re-arrangement of relations with NGOs in 1995 has to be seen in the broader context of the UNESCO reform process which initially started in 1988, because it reveals the motives for re-defining the relations to NGOs. Since the mid-1970s, the IGO came into such a severe crisis that even the continuance of the IGO as part of the UN system was in danger (Kittel/ Rittberger/ Schimmelfennig 1998). For some, UNESCO had always been the most politicised agency of the UN, particularly since its effects to introduce a "New World Information and Communications Order (NWICO)" (Williams 1987:62); for others it is simply the long-term extension of the different opinions of UNESCO?s purposes as exposed during the discussions of UNESCO?s foundation in London (Hüfner/ Reuther 1996:12).</p> <p>One of the major fields of criticism in the 1980s had been UNESCO?s inefficiency in terms of budget management and administration (Beigbeder 1987: 26-40; Imber 1989:96-120). Western states in particular were unsatisfied with the organisation?s growing expenses, its centralised management techniques and its unclear staff recruitment methods (Kittel/ Rittberger/ Schimmelfenning 1998; Hüfner/ Reuther 1996:12). The eventual withdrawal from UNESCO by the USA and the UK in the mid-1980s heavily endangered the survival of the whole organisation, either morally and financially, since two major and founding members denied their support and reduced the organisation?s budget by almost 30% (UNESCO?s Budget and Finance 1998).</p> <p>UNESCO?s reform aimed at improving the organisation?s efficacy and transparency. One of the major reform strategies was to slim down the organisation?s matters of concern to only a few, but more effective programmes and projects (UNESCO?s Programming and Evaluation 1998). Secondly, the budgetary situation was improved by the rise in extra budgetary resources. From 1995 to 1997, they increased from US$ 87.8 to 145 million. Almost 30% of these extra resources now come from other UN bodies (UNESCO?s Budget and Finance 1998). For more transparency, Field Offices and National Committees were considered more important in planning and executing UNESCO?s aims. As a result, Field Offices presently implement up to 50% of UNESCO?s programmes; National Committees receive nearly twice as much resources than in the past (UNESCO?s Decentralisation 1998).</p> <p><b>NGOs and their Formal Status at UNESCO before and after the Crisis</b></p> <p>The formal basis for the co-operation between UNESCO and NGOs is laid down in the Constitution of UNESCO (<i>Greenbook</i>). In Article XI, paragraph 4 in the UNESCO Constitution it is provided that</p> <p><i>"[t]he United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization may make suitable arrangements for consultation and co-operation with non-governmental international organizations concerned with matters within its competence, and may invite them to undertake specific tasks. Such co-operation may also include appropriate participation by representatives of such organizations on advisory committees set up by the General Conference".</i></p> <p>UNESCO?s directives 1995 then lay down the conditions under which NGOs are eligible for admission to two different types of relations: <i>Formal Relations</i> (FR), which can either be <i>Formal Associate Relations</i> (FAR) or<i> Formal Consultative Relations </i>(FCR), and<i> Operational Relations</i> (OR). In Formal Relations, NGOs might be invited by the Director-General to send observers to the General Assembly conferences and the commissions; in the latter they can make statements on matters within their competence. NGOs in FR are also allowed to submit written statements to the Director-General on programme matters and to receive documentation. NGOs in FAR are to be integrated "as closely and regularly as possible with the various stages of planning and execution of UNESCO?s activities" (I.8.3.(b)i). Different to other systems of consultation, NGOs in FAR at UNESCO are also provided with office accommodation (I.8.3.(b)iii).</p> <p>Operational Relations are designed to "maintain flexible and dynamic partnerships with any organization of civil society" in a specific field of UNESCO?s competence. NGOs in OR might only be invited to hearings, if a significant contribution is expected; they rather participate in collective consultations such as the Conference of International Non-Governmental Organisations. More importantly, NGOs in Operational Relations are entitled to apply for financial support (II.4.1.(c)) and can also be considered by UNESCO for contracts, if the Director-General considers them most competent in a related UNESCO programme (II.4.2.).</p> <p>Unlike other IGOs, UNESCO grants subventions to selected NGOs. Subventions are foreseen for NGOs making "a particularly valuable contribution to the achievement of Unesco?s objectives and to the implementation of an important part of its programme" (Doc. CPX-80/WS/8 1980:10). Compared to other UN bodies, UNESCO is remarkable in terms of subvention, because it also provides NGOs with funds for travel, conferences, publishing and research (Hoggart 1996:102).</p> <p>Since the consultative arrangement between NGOs and UNESCO, too, had become a matter of controversy during the UNESCO crisis, it initiated several recommendations (Doc. 128 EX/8 1987; Doc. 126 EX/31 1987) and eventually became revised in 1995. The Directives 1995 have most recently been described as the "turning point" in the relationship between NGOs and UNESCO (154 EX/29 1998:1). A closer look at the contents of the Directives 1966 and the Directives 1995, reveals conceptual similarities between the two sets of directives and a number of differences due to the reform process of UNESCO.<br /> </p> <p><b>NGOs at UNESCO</b><br /> <br /> </p> <table border="" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="4" width="652"> <tbody> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><b><font size="-1">UNESCO</font></b> <p><b><font size="-1">Directives 1966</font></b></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><b><font size="-1">UNESCO</font></b> <p><b><font size="-1">Directives 1995</font></b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><b><font size="-1">Aims</font></b></td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><font size="-1">Advise UNESCO</font> <p><font size="-1">Ensure UNESCO?s documentation</font></p> <p><font size="-1">Give technical assistance to UNESCO</font></p> <p><font size="-1">Express public opinion</font></p> <p><font size="-1">Advance the purposes of UNESCO</font></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><font size="-1">Advise UNESCO, </font> <p><font size="-1">Ensure UNESCO?s documentation</font></p> <p><font size="-1">Give technical assistance to UNESCO</font></p> <p><font size="-1">Express public opinion</font></p> <p><font size="-1">Promote emergence of NGOs in developing countries</font></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><b><font size="-1">Conditions</font></b></td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><font size="-1">International </font> <p><font size="-1">Non-governmental in origin, purpose, function and character</font></p> <p><font size="-1">One or more activities in UNESCO?s fields of competence</font><br /> <br /> </p> <p><font size="-1">Organisational structure (international composition, authorised representatives)</font></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><font size="-1">International </font> <p><font size="-1">National</font></p> <p><font size="-1">Non-governmental in origin, purpose, function and operation</font></p> <p><font size="-1">Non-profit in character</font></p> <p><font size="-1">One or more activities in UNESCO?s fields of competence</font></p> <p><font size="-1">Able and willing to make effective contributions </font></p> <p><font size="-1">Organisational structure (regular membership, recognised legal status, established headquarters, democratic statutes)</font></p> <p><font size="-1">Carrying out activities for at least 4 years</font></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><b><font size="-1">Withdrawal of CS</font></b></td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><font size="-1">Downgrading possible</font> <p><font size="-1">Termination possible</font></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><font size="-1">Downgrading possible </font> <p><font size="-1">Termination possible, also automatic (after four years continuos absence)</font></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><b><font size="-1">Organisation of NGOs</font></b></td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><font size="-1">Collective consultation (Conference)</font> <p><font size="-1">Standing Committee</font></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><font size="-1">Collective consultation (Conference)</font> <p><font size="-1">Standing Committee</font></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><b><font size="-1">Third </font></b> <p><b><font size="-1">Category</font></b></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><i><font size="-1">Mutual information relationship </font></i> <p><i><font size="-1">(Category C)</font></i></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><i><font size="-1">Operational Relations (OR)</font></i></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><font size="-1">Admission</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><font size="-1">Any organisation fulfilling the conditions</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><font size="-1">Any organisation </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><font size="-1">Duties</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><font size="-1">Exchange of information</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><font size="-1">Exchange of information</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><font size="-1">Rights</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><font size="-1">May be invited to meetings</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><font size="-1">May send observers to certain meetings</font> <p><font size="-1">Collective consultation</font></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><b><font size="-1">Second</font></b> <p><b><font size="-1">Category</font></b></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><i><font size="-1">Information and consultative relations</font></i> <p><i><font size="-1">(Category B)</font></i></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><i><font size="-1">Formal Consultative Relations (FCR)</font></i></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><font size="-1">Admission</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><font size="-1">After effective contribution for at least two years</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><font size="-1">Only international umbrella organisation</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><font size="-1">Duties</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><font size="-1">+ advice, provide assistance, contribute to execution of UNESCO?s programmes</font> <p><font size="-1">+ enhance common interests</font></p> <p><font size="-1">+ submit reports about activities</font></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><font size="-1">+ advice, provide assistance, contribute to execution of UNESCO?s programmes</font> <p><font size="-1">+ enhance interests </font></p> <p><font size="-1">+ submit reports about activities</font></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><font size="-1">Rights</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><font size="-1">+ invitation to meetings</font> <p><font size="-1">+ may address plenary session</font></p> <p><font size="-1">+ submit written statements</font></p> <p><font size="-1">+ receive documentation</font></p> <p><font size="-1">+ consultation</font></p> <p><font size="-1">+ may receive subvention</font></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><font size="-1">+ invitation to meetings</font> <p><font size="-1">+ may address plenary session</font></p> <p><font size="-1">+ submit written statements</font></p> <p><font size="-1">+ receive documentation</font></p> <p><font size="-1">+ consultation</font></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><b><font size="-1">First</font></b> <p><b><font size="-1">Category </font></b></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><i><font size="-1">Consultative and associate relations </font></i> <p><i><font size="-1">(Category A)</font></i></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><i><font size="-1">Formal AssociateRrelations (FAR)</font></i></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><font size="-1">Admission</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><font size="-1">Major effective contribution to UNESCO?s work</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><font size="-1">Only major international umbrella organisation</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><font size="-1">Duties</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><font size="-1">+ expand activities in common with UNESCO</font> <p><font size="-1">+ promote international co-ordination</font></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><font size="-1">+ expand activities in common with UNESCO</font> <p><font size="-1">+ promote international co-ordination</font></p> <p><font size="-1">+ maintain effective co-ordination with UNESCO</font></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="TOP" width="14%"><font size="-1">Rights</font></td> <td valign="TOP" width="42%"><font size="-1">+ association "as closely and regularly as possible with the various stages of the planning and execution of UNESCO activities"</font> <p><font size="-1">+ provision of office accommodation </font></p> </td> <td valign="TOP" width="43%"><font size="-1">+ association "as closely and regularly as possible with the various stages of the planning and execution of UNESCO activities"</font> <p><font size="-1">+ provision of office accommodation</font></p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p> </p> <p><font size="-1">"+" means in addition to rights or duties in the previous category</font></p> <p><font size="-1">TABLE: Consultative Status of NGOs at UNESCO in Comparison and Contrast</font><br /> </p> <p>Similarities between the Directives 1966 and the Directives 1995: Firstly, despite the new nomenclature of relations both directives categorise NGOs hierarchically. Similar to the old system of classification (categories A, B and C), NGOs fall under three main categories in the new system. Despite the division into only two types of relations, Formal Relations and Operational Relations, the new directives actually set down three types of relations, since the category of Formal Relations is divided up into two subtypes, Formal Associate Relations (FAR) and Formal Consultative Relations (FCR). In general, FAR is comparable with the former category A, FCR shows major similarities to category B, OR strongly resembles what had formerly been category C.</p> <p>Secondly, the old and the new system similarly lay down the conditions under which NGOs can seek admission. NGOs must not be established by intergovernmental agreement; their purposes, functions and operation must be without governmental aim; NGOs must have a non-profit character (Directives 1966: I.1; Directives 1995: I.2.1). Only the Directives 1995 specify the implications of <i>international</i> as "interregional and regional bodies, in the geographical or the cultural sense" (note 3). However, the directives do not specify any regions in this context. Concerning admission to the highest category, there is one difference between the two sets of directives. Whereas in the old system the admission to category A depended on the scope of activity and expected contribution to UNESCO?s work, the Directives 1995 admit only major umbrella organisations to FAR.</p> <p>Differences between the two sets of directives:<i> </i>First, to improve the transparency of the UNESCO system, the IGO transferred more tasks and resources to local and regional actors. As a result, UNESCO?s relations to NGOs too became decentralised. Contrary to the old system, where relations with NGOs were restricted to international NGOs, the Directives 1995 also admits national NGOs ("any non-governmental organisation", II.1.1). National NGOs can apply for Operational Relations only, and they are supposed to conduct their links with the National Committees of the Member State, or in particular cases, with the appropriate field unit of UNESCO (and not with the headquarters in Paris).</p> <p>Second, for a more effective contribution of NGOs to UNESCO?s purposes, the obligations UNESCO is posing on accredited NGOs are stricter than before (Hoggart 1996:102). UNESCO not only demands that NGOs in FAR expand their activities which fall into UNESCO?s field of competence (II,7.1(b)i), they are also encouraged to promote the formation of more umbrella organisations in their respective fields of activity (II,7.1(b)ii). In addition to the old system, FAR NGOs are asked to extend their networks on the local and regional level (II,7.1(b)iii). The new directives also foresee <i>automatic</i> termination, if there has been a complete absence of relations for four years.</p> <p>Third, UNESCO?s strategy of reducing financial expenses becomes mirrored in the conceptual perception of relations to NGOs. In the old system the emphasis is on ?consultation and co-operation? (Hoggart 1996:101) as it is frequently mentioned in the Directives 1966 (Preamble,1.,2.,3.; II.2.,3.,4.,5.; IV.4.; V.1.). The Directives 1995, instead, stress that UNESCO can not primarily be a funding institution for NGOs. Therefore, "these relations [between NGOs and UNESCO] will be essentially of an intellectual nature" (Preamble, 3). Under the old system, the above mentioned subventions depended on the category in which the NGOs were registered. This means, subventions were foreseen for NGOs in categories A and B only. The Directives 1995, instead, restrict subventions to NGOs which are newly established or have just started to co-operate with UNESCO. As a result, the priority will be the geographical location of the NGO: NGOs in developing countries or countries in transition will be given preference. Furthermore, UNESCO particularly emphasises that financial support is not to be understood as a permanent commitment, but can only be regarded as supplementary to other incomes. Subventions are also limited to a non-renewable period of four years maximum. However, in toto subventions to NGOs amounted to merely 1% of the regular budget of UNESCO (Merkel 1996:97). Therefore, less subventions for NGOs do not seem to create a great financial release for UNESCO. Furthermore, only a small number of all accredited NGOs actually profit from substantial financial support ? a growing tendency. From 1983 to 1988 in toto $12.8 million were given to 40 major organisations (Merkel 1996:97); for the 1990-91 period, 32 NGOs of categories A and B received $3,360,700 (UNESCO Sources 1992:13); from 1988 to 1993 the sum of $10.5 million was received by 18 organisations (Merkel 1996:97; Doc. 152 EX/40 1997:13).</p> <p>In addition, the Directories 1995 particularly emphasise the enforced support of new NGOs or existing NGOs in developing countries. UNESCO encourages "the emergence of new organizations that are representative of civil society in those regions of the world where such organizations, for historical, cultural or geographical reasons, are isolated or weak, and help to integrate such organizations into the network" (Preamble, 5). Furthermore, UNESCO privileges NGOs from developing countries: even if they are only in Formal Consultative Relations, they can be integrated more closely into co-operation with UNESCO than other NGOs having the same status. In this context, it is worth noting, that UNESCO also advises all accredited NGOs to support other NGOs in the developing world. This seems to imply that UNESCO wants to concentrate on less developed regions of the world rather than on particular issue-areas, what in the past created many controversies (like the NWICO).</p> <p><b>Re-defined Relations between NGOs and UNESCO</b></p> <p>The introduction of new directives had implications for the classification of all NGOs and hence for their opportunities for participation within the UNESCO system. The reclassification had been based on an individual evaluation of each NGO. The set of parameters can mainly be summarised as focusing on quality and regularity of co-operation with UNESCO, geographical representativeness and democratic legitimacy (Doc. 29 C/25 1997:1)<sup>.</sup><br />  <b>NGOs at UNESCO</b></p> <p><img alt="" src="/sites/dev.uia.be/files/img/webarchive/role_ngos_image5.gif" height="268" width="528" /></p> <p><i><font size="-1">Source: Doc. BRX/RIO.2/95/INF. 1995: Annex 1.2</font></i></p> <p><i>FIGURE 1: Growth in the number of non-governmental organisations maintaining official relations with UNESCO from 1961 (Introduction of categorised registration system, "Directives concerning UNESCO?s relations with non-governmental organisations") until 1995 (Introduction of new directives).</i><br /> </p> <p><img alt="" src="/sites/dev.uia.be/files/img/webarchive/role_ngos_image6.gif" height="266" width="501" /></p> <p><i><font size="-1">Sources: Doc. BRX/RIO.2/95/INF. Annex 1.2; Doc. 29 C/25 1997:4; Doc. 151 EX/ONG.2 (Part I) 1997:2</font></i></p> <p><i>FIGURE 2: Comparison of the number of NGOs having formal relations with UNESCO under the old system of categories and the new system of relations by types of relations (Category A ? FAR; Category B ? FCR, Category C ? OR).</i></p> <p>Two charts demonstrate the development in the accreditation of NGOs. The first chart clearly reveals the growth of NGOs accredited at UNESCO until 1995. From 1961 to 1995, in each category the number of NGOs increased by at least 150%. In category A, 22 NGOs were admitted when the system of categories became introduced to UNESCO in 1961; in 1995, 55 NGOs were registered under this category (increase by 150%). In category B, the number of NGOs increased by 155% (from 99 to 252); in category C the number of NGOs even grew by 326% (from 66 to 281). In toto, the number of admitted NGOs increased by 214% (from 187 in 1961 to 588 in 1995).The second chart reveals changes in classifications after 1995. It shows how UNESCO slimmed down on relations to NGOs in all types of relations. It particularly demonstrates that the percentage of NGOs admitted to the highest category (FAR) decreased to nearly one fourth the percentage of NGOs having had the highest status under the old system (category A). Whereas under the old system 9.4% (or 55) of all NGOs were admitted to category A, only 2.7% (or 16) gained the highest status in the new system. Such is the case also for NGOs having the second highest status (FCR or Category B). It decreased to one fourth too. In category B, there were 42.8% (252) registered, now only 10.7% (63) of all NGO are having Formal Consultative Relations with UNESCO. The percentage of NGOs in the third category stayed almost the same (47.8% or 281 under the old system; 45.3% or 266 in Operational Relations). Under the new system 34.2% (or 201) of all 588 NGOs are now merely registered under so-called Informal Relations. Taking into account the low degree of co-operation between NGOs in Informal Relations and UNESCO (this status has no real framework of co-operation), this implies that almost one-third of all officially accredited NGOs fell out of the participatory framework .</p> <p>Furthermore, research for this article revealed that amongst the remaining 16 NGOs in FAR are at least 12 NGOs (plus ICSU) which had been founded by UNESCO itself. Taking into account, that these NGOs highly conform to UNESCO?s objectives or in many regards simply carry out UNESCO?s responsibilities and projects, it is not surprising that these NGOs have been admitted to the highest category. Secondly, in view that NGOs in FAR are in a privileged position (as explained above), this leads to the conclusion, that UNESCO?s "own" NGOs are more influential than other NGOs at UNESCO.</p> <p><b>Summarising on Relations between NGOs and UNESCO</b></p> <p>This particular relationship between NGOs and UNESCO is due to the nature of UNESCO itself, and the immense workload the organisation is saddled with. As a consequence, NGOs have been incorporated into the UNESCO system since the foundation of the IGO in 1945. However, UNESCO has made clear that NGOs should be considered as associates, which implement UNESCO?s policies and objectives. For this reason, UNESCO has encouraged working relations with existing NGOs in order to hand over fields of work. More importantly, the IGO has endeavoured to create for its own purposes many of its closest-linked NGOs. The example of ICSU demonstrates the incorporation of an already existing NGO into the intergovernmental body of UNESCO. It shows motives for a close co-operation on both sides: UNESCO, on the one hand, profits from the support of the NGO, because it gains the expertise of specialists. In return, the NGO receives substantial financial and moral support, which led to its own gain in status and influence.</p> <p>Compared to other IGOs, UNESCO is offering particular privileges to "its" NGOs, such as office accommodation and financial aid. However, UNESCO is also more demanding on accredited NGOs than any other IGO. UNESCO expects NGOs to enhance those of their aspects which are linked to UNESCO?s purposes and objectives.</p> <p>By introducing new directives in 1995, UNESCO reformed its arrangements with NGOs. The Directives 1995 stress the intention of closer links to regional and national NGOs, and to NGOs in developing countries. Therefore, the IGO decentralised existing relations. For more efficiency, UNESCO slimmed down on the number of accredited NGOs; one third of all associated NGOs fell out of the active participatory arrangement. Furthermore, as a result of the new regulations in 1995, almost exclusively UNESCO-created NGOs remained in the highest and most privileged category of relations.</p> <p>In sum, UNESCO?s relationship to NGOs shows two particularities. First, many of UNESCO?s associated NGOs do not stem from private initiative (unlike what UNESCO documents suggest), they are created by the IGO itself. Secondly, the Directives 1995 do not illustrate the global tendency of the growth of NGOs. On the contrary, the number of accredited NGOs became significantly reduced.</p> <p><b>Concluding Remarks</b></p> <p>The aim of this study was to make a contribution to the analysis of NGOs in international relations. Since NGOs maintain official relations with international governmental organisations, such as UNESCO, IGOs provide an accessible point to observe the ?phenomenon NGO?. The case study on the relationship between NGOs and UNESCO suggests a further exploration of IGO profits as a result of linkages between NGOs and IGOs. The particular relationship between NGOs and UNESCO is not a reflection of the growing importance of NGOs in international politics; it is rather the result of their establishment by the IGO itself and the reform process the IGO is going through in order to improve its effectiveness. Consequently, NGOs are merely in an assisting role for the IGO. That UNESCO?s new directives particularly favour their self-created NGOs supports the argument.</p> <p>In conclusion, the relationship between NGOs and IGOs is multiform and needs further empirical and theoretical exploration. The findings of this work on NGOs at UNESCO demonstrate that more research has to be done on the nature of associated NGOs, their origins and individual relations to IGOs since these aspects are highly important in order to analyse the character of NGOs and their status in world politics.</p> <hr /> <p><b>NOTES:</b></p> <p>*      This research has been partly made possible through the provision of the Harold Howitt Travelling Scholarship of the University of Nottingham (April?98).</p> <p>1 &amp; 2.  For the purposes of this study, NGOs will be defined as ?any non-profit-making, non-violent, organised group of people who are not seeking governmental office?(Willetts 1996a:5).</p> <p>3.  Some scholars retrace the history of NGOs to the Middle Ages. For example, Bettati and Dupuy interpret religious and commercial associations, such as the Holy Order or the Han-se-atic League of Merchants as NGOs since they were not founded on any governmental ba-sis (1986:23-33); for Czempiel, the Catholic Church represents an international NGO even since the 4th century (1981:164). As the prototype of mod-ern NGOs, Williams identifies the Anti-Slavery Society (1823) (1987:260). For a comprehensive histori-cal overview on NGOs in the last two centuries, see Seary (1996); his survey reflects the development of NGOs from the congress of Vienna in 1814/15 to the founding period of the UN. For NGOs after the First World War, see also Clark (1991:34-40). Ghils summarises pre-modern transnational movements (1992:417-9).</p> <p>4.  For newer, rare exceptions of analyses of other NGO aspects and UN bodies, see Willetts (1996e). This edition includes single chapters on NGOs in relation to the World Bank, NGOs and the rights of the child and Save the Children Fund and NGOs. See also Weiss/ Gordenker (1996) edition, which included chap-ters on humani-tarian intervention, women?s movement, Third World NGOs and NGOs, UN and Central America.</p> <p>5.  Rare exceptions of research on NGOs and UNESCO are Papini (1976), Goldbach (1995) and Hoggart (1996). However, they do not consider the 1995 re-classification of NGOs</p> <p>6.   Provisional directives were already adopted at the first session of the General Conference in 1946; they became revised in 1947. Minor changes were also made in 1960 (Directives 1960) (Goldbach 1995:36; Sto-sic 1964:268/9).</p> <p>7.  Accredited NGOs are listed under UNESCO?s NGO Partners (1998).</p> <p>8.  Major examples of UNESCO creations are: the International Council on Ar-chives, the World Conserva-tion Union, the Inter-national Thea-tre Institute (all created in 1948), the International Council for Philosophy and Hu-manistic Studies, the International Music Council (1949), the International Association of Universi-ties (1950), the International So-cial Science Council (1952), the International Council of Sport Science and Physical Edu-ca-tion, the International Brain Research Organisation (1960), the International Institute for Educational Plan-ning (1963), see La-coste (1994); Merkel (1996), UNESCO Sources (1996) and Kotsch-nig (1957). One of the latest examples of UNESCO?s creations is the Expert Center for Taxo-nomic Iden-tifica-tion, which became established in 1990 with support of UNESCO (Doc. 151 EX/ONG.2 Add 1997).</p> <p>9.   It is worth noting, that the impact of the first Director-General of UNESCO, Julian Huxley was of highest importance for the development of the relationship between NGOs and UNESCO. Huxley favoured a role for NGOs which would heavily involve them in UNESCO?s procedures and activities, since he assumed that NGOs were less bound to bu-reau-cratic procedures than UNESCO (Hoggart 1996:105/6; Kotschnig 1957:555; Sewell 1975:89). In particular, Huxley himself created many of UNESCO?s clos-est NGOs (Sew-ell 1975:300).</p> <p>10.   ICSU ? although often referred to as an NGO ? is not purely non-gov-ernmental in character. It rather en-compasses governments, governmental officials, other in-tergovernmental organisa-tions and non-govern-mental organi-sations (Morphet 1996:118). Today, its membership consists of 20 in-ternational scientific un-ions, 74 national members and 29 scientific self-governing organisations (Lacoste 1994:30).</p> <p>11.   For current projects between ICSU and UNESCO, see ICSU Yearbook (1997:283).</p> <p>12.  Besides, NGOs are frequently taken into account in UNESCO?s Constitution: un-der certain conditions ? mainly the requirement of a two-third majority of states present and voting ? non-governmental organisa-tions can be admitted as ob-servers at specified sessions of the General Conference (Greenbook 1996:35). They may also make statements on matters within their competence in the com-mittees, commissions or sub-sidiary organs of the Gen-eral Conference, if the Chair agrees (Greenbook 1996:51). Non-governmen-tal or-ganisa-tions at UNESCO are allowed to hold conferences (Greenbook 1996:107) and to attend inter-national congresses (Greenbook 1996:110). The Director-General might also invite non-governmen-tal or-ganisations to send observers to seminars, training, refresher courses (Greenbook 1996:116) or symposia (Greenbook 1996:119). Further-more, the Constitution advises na-tional commissions to establish consul-tative re-lations with NGOs (Greenbook 1996:122).</p> <p>13.  Bibliographical indications refer to Directives 1995.</p> <p>14.   The conditions for admission to Operational Relation are rather relaxed. The above men-tioned conditions (non governmental character) are not applicable for Operational Rela-tions.</p> <p>15.   Geographical representativeness was measured in a complex matrix divided into six sec-tions, one for the home country where headquarters is based and five for the geographical re-gions (Africa, Asian-Pacific, Ara-bic Countries, Latin-American Countries, Europe) on the x-axis, and up to 15 indicators on the y-axis (e.g. location of headquarters, headquarters re-gion, governing body, members, statutory meetings, work-shop/seminar, field action, events, publi-cation, miscellaneous, prizes, radio, TV, grants, fellowship). Demo-cratic legitimacy was measured on the general policy, composition and rules of the governing body, funding, re-presentation arrangements with different countries. Status of co-operation with UNESCO was measured on keeping UNESCO regularly informed about the NGO?s activities, the NGO?s expertise in major fields in common with UNESCO?s interests, expected profit of future co-operation with the NGO (Doc. 151 EX/ONG.2 (Part II-Individual fact sheets); Doc. 151 EX/ONG.2. Add (Part II-Individual fact sheets)).</p> <p>16.   The twelve NGOs are: the International Association of Universities, the International Council for Phi-losophy and Humanistic Studies, the International Council of Museums, the International Theatre Insti-tute, the World Conversation Union, the International Music Council, International Council of Sports and Physical Educa-tion, Interna-tional Council on Monuments and Sites, International Sci-ence Council, World Federation on UNESCO Clubs, Centers and Associations, Interna-tional Council for Engineering and Tech-nology. 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The Influence of Non-Governmental Organisations in the UN System</i> (London: C. Hurst &amp; Co. Ltd.) , pp.1-14</p> <p>Willetts, Peter 1996<i>b</i>, ?Consultative Status for NGOs at the United Nations?, in Willetts, Peter (Ed.), <i>?The Conscience of the World?. The Influence of Non-Governmental Organisations in the UN System</i> (London: C. Hurst &amp; Co. Ltd.), pp. 31-62</p> <p>Willetts, Peter 1996<i>c</i>, ?Who cares about the Environment??, in Vogler, John/ Imber, Mark F.(Eds.), <i>The Environment &amp; International Relations</i> (Kent: Mackays of Chatham), pp. 120-37</p> <p>Willetts, Peter 1996<i>d</i>, ?From Stockholm to Rio and beyond: the Impact of the Environment Movement on the United Nations Consultative Arrangements for NGOs?, <i>Review of International Studies</i> 22, pp. 57-80</p> <p>Willetts, Peter (Ed.) 1996<i>e,</i> ?<i>The Conscience of the World?. The Influence of Non-Governmental Organisations in the UN System</i> (London: C. Hurst &amp; Co. Ltd.)</p> <p>Williams, Douglas 1987, <i>The Specialized Agencies and the United Nations. The System in Crisis</i> (London: C. Hurst &amp; Company)</p> </div> Fri, 12 Apr 2013 13:02:32 +0000 rachele 1925 at https://uia.org https://uia.org/archive/role-ngos-unesco#comments Millennium Forum https://uia.org/archive/millennium-forum <span class="field-label"> Author: </span> <div class="field-author inline"> Cyril Ritchie </div> <span class="field-label"> Year: </span> <div class="field-archive-year inline"> 2 000 </div> <div class="field-body"> <p>Statement by Cyril Ritchie<br /> This article was published in <em><cite><a href="/journals?field_category_tid%5B%5D=235&amp;combine=&amp;items_per_page=5">Transnational Associations</a></cite></em>, Issue <a href="/sites/uia.org/files/journals/Transnational_Associations_Journal_2000-5_0.pdf">5/2000</a>, 235-236. All rights reserved.<br /> Article publié dans <em><cite><a href="/journals?field_category_tid%5B%5D=235&amp;combine=&amp;items_per_page=5">Associations Transnationales</a></cite></em>, Issue <a href="/sites/uia.org/files/journals/Transnational_Associations_Journal_2000-5_0.pdf">5/2000</a>, 235-236. Tous droits réservés. </p> <p>First WOCSOC in Montreal last December, now the Millennium Forum in May 2000: these are events through which Civil Society is pursuing its task of changing the world. WOCSOC was a focal point specifically for civil society networks, and one of its successes was in having a high percentage of women among the participants and an even more significant proportion of women among the speakers and panelists. WOCSOC demonstrated once again that when women exercize leadership, our conferences - and the world - will be better. </p> <p> WOCSOC also underscored two important truths of major relevance to the Millennium Forum. Firstly the essential role the United Nations plays - and must play - in our increasingly interdependent world. Secondly the increasing weight of relevant and competent civil society organizations as partners with the United Nations. These truths are simple in their essence but very complex in their ramifications. </p> <p> On the first point, the principles enunciated in the United Nations Charter have the support of every person of good will, as do the many Conventions adopted over the years under the aegis of the UN or its Specialized Agencies. But in practice the UN is too often ignored or sidelined by its member governments for short-term political reasons. The world needs a strong UN based on incontrovertible principles, managed rationally, financed at an adequate level that does not require it to perform contortions to carry out its mandates, and reflecting in all its actions the enlightened conscience of humanity. Governments and the media must cease to treat the UN as a scapegoat when the political decisions of those same governments prevent it from fulfilling its true role as the world?s principal agent of peace, development, equity and justice. </p> <p> On the second point, Civil Society is now more than ever indispensable to the search for rational and realistic solutions to the world?s problems. Civil Society is not a new phenomenon. The use of the words civil society may relatively recently have entered the political lexicon, but the concept of public opinion organizing itself to change the world for the better is nothing new. Civil Society?s recent collective and successful world campaigns against mines, or for an International Criminal Court, find precedents in the Anti-Slavery Movement or the Anti-Apartheid Movement, in last century?s societies or in the humanitarian groundswell started by the Red Cross. What is new is the extent to which governments must now open up to, and respond to, the input from competent and relevant civil society organizations. Governments need to draw on the professional, technical, scientific, and grass roots experience and capabilities of CSOs, and the world?s remaining authoritarian governments need it more than any, for with the fall of colonialism, of apartheid South Africa and of the communist Soviet empire, we now know that in a world of increasingly limitless communication mechanisms, it is going to be impossible to govern without the genuine consent of the people. </p> <p> These considerations underline once more why the United Nations and Civil Society share so many principles in common and why the WOCSOC Conference was focused on "Building Global Governance Partnerships". That concept of partnerships is vital. The problems confronting the world?s governments and institutions are now so interlinked, so pervasive, so complex, that no isolated solutions will stick. We need partnership-based solutions if we are to achieve the eradication of social and economic injustice, if we are to attain a world community based on the rule of law and on principles of sustainable development, if we are to raise Human Security to the top of the political agenda. Partnerships must include governments, intergovernmental institutions - a strong UN above all, enlightened business leadership, and of course the responsible strata of civil society exemplified by the participants to this Millennium Forum. </p> <p> In conclusion, and as a further contribution to the Millennium Forum?s deliberations and follow up, here are a few of the Action Priorities elaborated at WOCSOC: </p> <p> - The UN Security Council must be primarily a Peace Council, a Human Rights Council, a Human Development Council, in short a Human Security Council. This role will be furthered by consultative access to the Security Council for competent and relevant civil society organizations (CSOs). </p> <p> - The Security Council is invited to establish a Committee of independent experts to assess humanitarian situations endangering peace and to elaborate coherent early warning mechanisms. </p> <p> - There is need for the International Financial Institutions (IFls) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) to report to the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) on their activities - and the consequences thereof- in the social, environmental and human rights areas. ECOSOC shall set guidelines to establish the primacy of human values over money values. </p> <p> - The undermining of the effectiveness of the UN System through inadequate funding can be reversed both by governments fulfilling their legal and logical responsibilities and by the institution of a full or modified Tobin Tax designated for the UN?s global work. </p> <p> - Of top priority for the achievement of a just world is the enactment and implementation of national - and where appropriate local - legislation to ensure gender equality takes root in daily life. National and local legal and administrative measures must ensure that women exercize and enjoy human rights and fundamental freedoms equally with men. Such guarantees must fully extend to life within the family circle, and to girls? access to education and training. </p> <p> - Governments have the responsibility to create an enabling environment for an active and dynamic civil society, itself a prerequisite for the true existence of democracy. It is in a government?s own interest to foster civil society institutions that work independently and that exercize checks on omissions or excesses committed by governments. Freedom of opinion, freedom of expression, and freedom of association are fundamental and inalienable rights. </p> <p> - Responsible business creates responsible prosperity and enhances human living standards. Civil society seeks to work with responsible business leaders to bring about a shared understanding of the importance in business and in the community of implementing internationally-agreed labour, environmental and human rights standards. In conflict areas the business community needs to be aware of and comply with the precepts of international humanitarian law. In all cases, the implementation procedures and outcomes require independent and objective monitoring. </p> <p> - CSOs would welcome cooperation from academia to a) provide scholarships for peace research by CSOs, b) train journalists in CS practices, c) research and expand the comprehension of UN and CSO vocabulary, d) research and expand the mutual comprehension of academic, CS practitioner and popular vocabulary, e) provide services for pro bono translation of CS documents, f) provide scholarships for CS activists to spend periods of time in academia, g) offer objective assessment and evaluation of civil society programmes and practices. </p> <p> - Democracy can only exist in the context of a dynamic civil society. Civil society action is rooted in the voluntary giving of resources, time and skills to benefit communities and individuals, near and far. Every occasion should be taken to foster and give incentive to the voluntary spirit. A particular opportunity to focus on the universal values of volunteering is provided by the Year 2001, the International Year of Volunteers. </p> <p> For our week?s work together, and for the follow up after this Millennium Forum let us be inspired by the words of the UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan, spoken at the opening of WOCSOC in Montreal: </p> <p> "The UN is keenly aware that if the global agenda is to be properly addressed, a partnership with civil society is not an option, it is a necessity. Solutions can be found only if we address global issues together - through better cooperation, closer alliances, increased commitment, and a renewed sense of solidarity. By bringing your energy, creativity and practical idealism to the process you will give global civil society its rightful place as one of the pillars of the international community in the twenty-first century." </p> </div> Fri, 12 Apr 2013 11:13:32 +0000 rachele 1923 at https://uia.org https://uia.org/archive/millennium-forum#comments Is Global Civil Society Coming Down to Earth? https://uia.org/archive/civil-society-down-to-earth <span class="field-label"> Author: </span> <div class="field-author inline"> Peter Waterman </div> <span class="field-label"> Year: </span> <div class="field-archive-year inline"> 1 999 </div> <div class="field-body"> <p>By Peter Waterman<br /> Ronnie D. Lipschutz (with Judith Mayer), Global Civil Society and Global Environmental Governance: The Politics of Nature from Place to Planet. Albany: SUNY Press. 1996. 365 pp.<br /> Published in <em><cite><a href="/journals?field_category_tid%5B%5D=235&amp;combine=&amp;items_per_page=5">Transnational Associations</a></cite></em>, Issue <a href="/sites/uia.org/files/journals/Transnational_Associations_Journal_1999-2_0.pdf">2/1999</a></p> <p>In a review article written some years ago I argued that `global civil society' had had the misfortune of being transformed from an ideological formulation to an international policy slogan without passing through the forge of theoretical clarification or the sieve of public debate (Waterman 1996:170). If Lipschutz/Mayer had been available at that time I would have had to qualify this statement. Lipschutz is clearly concerned to see global environmental governance in terms of global civil society (henceforth GCS). I have no doubt that, in so doing, he is moving the concept beyond the previous somewhat superficial level of use/abuse (as in Waterman 1998:227-8). The question is now one of whether his understanding enlightens his subject matter - and/or whether the subject matter sharpens the concept. </p> <p> For reasons I will later try to explain, this is a difficult book to summarise. Essentially, however, Lipschutz is concerned to demonstrate that what <i>I</i> might think of as the global environmental movement is better conceived of as the self-development of a GCS, with the latter implying a new system of global environmental governance (not government), and with the latter, again, dependent on globally-informed local activity. The book falls into three main parts, which could - though his practice undermines my distinction - be considered as theoretical, analytical and prescriptive. These parts are preceded by an introduction in which Lipschutz spells out his argument: </p> <p></p><dir> <dir>I write here about an emerging from of `global' politics and governance that is rooted in the civil societies of many different countries but is also, to a growing degree, transnational in its reach, articulated via a complex set of knowledge-based linkages and, at the same time sensitive to differences among local places [?] What I analyse here?is what is often called the `environmental movement', but is better understood as a transnational system of rules, principles, norms and practices, oriented around a very large number of often dissimilar actors, focused on enivronmental protection, sustainability, and governance. (Lipschutz 1996:1)<br /> </dir> </dir> In so far as he is talking about global politics, the Lipschutz insistence on the centrality of the local in environmental governance becomes crucial: <dir> <dir>First, everyone's experience of the world is centred where they are: The `global' has no material existence except insofar as it impacts on the individual, who is ineluctably restricted to a single place at any one time (CNN, economic integration and global air travel not withstanding). Second, however, everyone is aware that the world is much more than the place in which they find themselves: Each `local' is part of a number of globe-girdling systems through which actions in one place can be transmitted and made known to other places? More to the point, the activities we ordinarily describe as `international' have no effect except as they motivate changes in the behaviour and practices of individuals, or groups, acting locally. (7)<br /> </dir> </dir> It is in the theoretical part of his book that Lipschutz conceptualises `global civil society' in terms of <dir> <dir>agents acting collectively through networks of knowledge and practice. Such agency operates both in opposition to and in concert with states and the international system, but always in terms of rules governing resource regimes. In a sense, global civil society can be seen as part of a growing system of global governanace, rather than just an agent of reform, rebellion, or resistance [?G]lobal civil society?includes: (1) organisations or alliances that practice at the international or global level?(2) organisations that provide technical assistance to local groups engaged in resource restoration?and individual groups themselves; (3) individual groups that belong to national?or transnational alliances?; and (4) groups and organisations `in touch' with their counterparts elsewhere around the world or simply sharing an ecological epistemology. (49-51) <br /> </dir> </dir> Lipschutz makes clear that although his GCS includes the environmental movement, this may itself be partly state-funded or state-linked, and a GCS must also be understood as including state agencies or agents of states concerned with the development of new forms of ecological governance. A GCS, he argues further, `interacts with states but tries to maintain some degreee of autonomy from them' (53). It tends to occupy spaces not directly state conrolled. The `code of global civil society' (ibid) denies the primacy of states and their sovereignty. It is global not only because it operates across national borders and in non-territorial space but also because of its increasingly global consciousness. <p></p> <p> There is much more than this in the two or three theory chapters. Indeed, my feeling is that there is <i>too</i> much, as Lipschutz picks up - or picks issue with - a whole range of literatures, including, but not limited to those on ecology, ethics, international relations, anthropology and social movements! Indeed, in Chapter 7, Lipschutz even seems to be borrowing from Marxist political economy. Whilst this range speaks to the breadth of his scholarship, it prevents him from developing depth on his central concepts, as well as from placing his own ambitious project in relation to major worldviews/views of the world, or even to those addressed to a GCS (e.g. Held 1995), or even the global environmental problematic (e.g. Princen and Finger 1994) more directly. I will return to the conceptualisation later. </p> <p> Whatever the shortcomings/excesses of the conceptual/methodological introduction, the decision to do national/local case studies in three distant and distinct world areas is more than felicitous. If the three old political/economic/ideological/strategic worlds are now demonstrably a single, if differentiated, ecological whole, the case for a holistic alternative makes <i>itself</i>. Lipschutz examines the US (actually a small part of northern and coastal California) and Hungary, and Mayer does Indonesia. The idea is that despite all the admitted and demonstrated differences of history, political economy, social movements and - of course - ecology, these locales reveal not only the common impact of globalisation but the global commonalities of local response, and the manner in which global environmental governance is being constructed in such locales (13). </p> <p> The case studies do indeed reveal the differences/similarities, although no extensive compare/contrast exercise is built into the analyses. The value of the GCS concept (the last long quote above) is, howver, not well established here. This is for the following reasons: </p> <ul> <li> the protean nature of the Lipschutz concept. It is predictable that either a) the global environmental movements, b) its ideas, c) its policies, and/or d) nothern state/international NGO agency funding, will have local influence: we need know who, what, which, to what ends and in whose interest;</li> </ul> <ul> <li> the source of such `global' influence - which is in large part that of the US itself: this makes measuring such in a Californian case study problematic;</li> </ul> <ul> <li> the here well-documented tensions and conflicts not simply between Lipschutz's different agencies but even between those most independent of national/international government and capital.</li> </ul> <p>What would seem to be necessary is either a critical/self-critical concept of GCS, or additional concepts capable of dealing with autonomy, democracy, access, transparency, class, internationalism. And, most importantly, we would need address to the poor, or `the people', rather than either specific sectoral interests or the middle class (as in, for example, Taylor 1995). Due to these limitations, the influence of GCS on the Californian case is only asserted, that on the Hungarian case is revealed as extremely problematic. It is only the Indonesian case, in which parts of the environmental movement have established both intimate relations with the popr <i>and</i> a sophisticated critical relationship with external forces, that one can see at least the potential for local feedback into a till-now largely western-defined GCS. </p> <p> As I have said, Lipschutz's book does not divide neatly. Following the case studies we actually have another theory chapter, in which the author wrestles with locale and identity in a globalising world. The globalisation part is where Lipschutz comes close to Marxist/Post-Marxist political economy/geography. The identity part is closer to the post-structuralist/social-constructionist tradition. In so far as the argument is conceptual, and does not flow out of the case studies, it surely belongs in Part I of the book. But never mind. It presents a comparatively straightforward and convincing case for the intimate relationship between (changing) identities and (changing ideas of) locale under the conditions of dislocation resulting from a careless and destructive capitalist globalisation. As Lipschutz himself puts it </p> <p></p><dir> <dir>The apparent paradox - a global civil society rooted in a highly particularistic Nature and place - is not as paradoxical as it might seem at first glance. (233) <br /> </dir> </dir> Chapter 8, the last one, <i>is</i> about policy, in the sense of the kind of rules and institutions necessary to deal with the environment: ` <dir> <dir>Who rules? Whose rules? What rules? What kind of rules? At what level? In what form? Who decides? On what basis? (237) <br /> </dir> </dir> Here, again, Lipschutz begins by discussing theory, or theories, about economic integration and political disintegration. He goes on to argue for the combination of local rooting and global networking suggested by his previous conceptualisation and analysis. There is here no such simple institutional fix as might be suggested by world federalism, nor by more complex theories on the democratisation of the global (for which see below). <p></p> <p> Lipschutz suggests, rather than demonstrates or even argues for, a complex, multi-faceted and multi-levelled democracy. The insistence on the primacy of the local is qualified by a recognition of the dangers of particularism. The whole argument functions, I feel, mainly as a corrective to notions of global institutional reform, or even transformation, that forget where most people meet most people, and where most people are most confronted by both ecological deterioration and the possibility of doing something about this. What it, however, leaves us unprepared for are two products of 1998. One is the Pinochet case, in which, I would argue, a globalised liberal-democratic civil society demonstrated humane, progressive and -who knows? - locally transformatory impact. The other is the second of two collections on `cosmopolitan democracy' (Archibugi, Held and Koehler 1998), which argues forcefully for a multi-levelled democratisation and for a sense of global citizenship to empower ordinary people for effective participation at all such levels. In both cases, it would seem, the initiative rests largely with social movements for which Lipschutz has little time. </p> <p> Although Lipschutz does not reproduce the binary opposition between the vicious global and the virtuous local that can be found in much environmentalist literature (e.g. Shiva 1993), he does, I think, allow for such by default. By this I mean that he abandons the international/global institutional level to capitalism and (inter-)statism, rather than seeing either as existing - or potentially new - spaces for a contestation that is both possible and necessary. The positive within his global exists only in the sphere of ideas, information and values, with their power to link and empower the local. At the same time, however, he either ignores or dismisses the very feature of globalisation that allows the discussion and transmission of such emancipatory and transformatory ideas. `Computer', `communication', `information' do not appear in his index. And, in the one place that international computerised communication between social movements is mentioned in his book (283, fn. 50), he dismisses its effect as `overrated' (c.f. Poster 1995). His GCS thus comes close to a life force or world spirit. </p> <p> I think that we must trace these shortcomings back to the concept of a GCS offered. Such notions are being increasingly subject to the justified suspicion of the Political Economists, even if their concept of political economy is as protean as is Lipschutz' GCS (see, e.g., Pasha and Blaney 1998 for a critique of Lipschutz and others). I can take the Lipschutz stress on the centrality of the local, as well as on the necessity for thinking in terms of rules and governance. But these need to be informed by a sense of what on earth - and in the ether - is going on (Waterman 1999). And then to be empowered by a notion of GCS as space/place to be created and/or liberated from capitalism and statism (not to mention patriarchy, racism and environmental destruction). </p> <p> Cyberspace, here, is actually the space of maximum freedom and creativity. There have been well-known - if problematic - demonstrations of its effectivity: the dialectic between the Mexican Zapatistas and their national and international sympathisers; the undermining and discrediting, if not destruction, of the Multinational Agreement on Investments; the international campaign of support to the Liverpool, UK, dock dispute, 1995-8, and the influence of the Liverpool website on following Australian and US dockworker struggles. This is not to dispute the stress on the local. But two points need adding to the Lipschutz argument. One is, of course, that the local is not what it used to be. What we are increasingly confronted with is globalised locales (Massey 1991), meaning local places in which local-national as well as local-local tensions (inter- or intra-) are complicated by the contradictory forces of globalisation (i.e. for better or for worse, for better <i>and</i> for worse). Another is that such locales <i>must be</i> privileged sites for popular struggle, since, as an Argentinean colleague once informed me, most of the population of Buenos Aires never goes beyond a 5-10 kilometre distance from home. (Yet, it also occurs to me, the severely localised Liverpool dockers did travel to such distant and exotic locales as Calcutta and Francophone Quebec). Global spaces and local places are class/power differentiated. <i>My </i>locale is qualified by the time I spend at the computer (writing pieces like this), and my capacity to travel from The Hague to Lima (where I drafted it). When I look at The (ecology of the) Hague it is in a very different way to that in which it is perceived and experienced by an elderly Dutch male resident of a rundown inner city area - or by a young second-generation Turkish resident of such. </p> <p> I have strayed from the ecological. This is partly due to my relative ignorance of this and the movements/institutions related to such. Lipschutz provides us with plenty of food for thought here. But my view from outside this particular problematic enables me to also enquire whether, for Lipschutz, the global ecological problem/movement/governance is <i>identical</i> with a GCS, a <i>privileged area within</i> a GCS, or simply <i>one of many possible contributors</i> to such. He is not unambiguous here, though I suspect he leans toward the second position. I lean toward the third. But I am prepared to entertain arguments concerning the second. Regardless of any decision here, I am convinced that Lipschutz and his colleague have made a significant contribution to what is going to be a lively future debate concerned with bringing global civil society down to earth. </p> <blockquote><p> <i> Santa Crus (CA), Lima, The Hague</i> <br /> <i> December 1998-February 1999</i> </p></blockquote> <p> <b><i>References</i></b> </p> <p></p><dir> <dir>Archibugi, Daniele, David Held and Martin Koehler. 1998. <i>Re-imagining Political Community</i>. Cambridge: Polity. 352 pp. <p></p> <p> Chatterjee, Pratap and Matthias Finger. 1994. <u>The Earth Brokers: Power, Politics and World Development</u>. London: Routledge. 191pp. </p> <p> Cleaver, Harry. Forthcoming. `The Zapatista Effect and the Cyberspacial Subversion of Foreign Policy'. <i>Journal of International Affairs.</i> </p> <p> Held, David. 1995. <u>Democracy and Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance</u>. Cambridge: Polity. 324pp. </p> <p> <span style="font-family: Roman PS">Massey, Doreen. 1991. `A Global Sense of Place', <i>Marxism Today</i>, June, pp. 24-29.</span> </p> <p> <span style="font-family: Roman PS">Pasha, Mustapha Kamal and David Blaney. 1998. `Elusive Paradise: The Promise and Peril of Global Civil Society', <i>Alternatives</i>, Vol. 23, pp. 417-50.</span> </p> <p> Poster, Mark. 1995. ?Cyberdemocracy: Internet and the Public Sphere'. Unpublished (Email received August 27, 1996). </p> <p> Princen, Thomas and Matthias Finger. 1994. <u>Environmental NGOs in World Politics: Linking the Local and the Global</u>, Routledge, London, 262 pp. </p> <p> <span style="font-family: Roman PS">Shiva, Vandana. 1993. `The Greening of the Global Reach', in Jeremy Brecher, John Brown Childs, and Jill Cutler (eds), <i>Global Visions: Beyond the New World Order</i>. Boston: South End Press: pp. 53-60.</span> </p> <p> <span style="font-family: Roman PS">Taylor, Bron Raymond (ed). 1995. <i>Ecological Resistance Movements: The Global Emergence of Radical and Popular Environmentalism</i>. Albany: State University of New York. 422 pp.</span> </p> <p> Waterman, Peter. 1996. `Beyond Globalism and Developmentalism: Other Voices in World Politics', <i>Development and Change</i>, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 165-80. </p> <p> Waterman, Peter. 1998. <i>Globalisation, Social Movements and the New Internationalisms</i>. London and Washington: Cassell/Mansell. 302 pp. </p> <p> Waterman, Peter. 1999. `The Brave New World of Manuel Castells: What on Earth (and in the Ether) is Going on?', <i>Development and Change</i>, Vol. ?, No. ?, pp. </p> <p> * Institute of Social Studies, The Hague <br /> <a target="_blank" class="ext" href="https://www.iss.nl/en">https://www.iss.nl/en</a></p></dir></dir> </div> Fri, 12 Apr 2013 11:06:16 +0000 rachele 1922 at https://uia.org https://uia.org/archive/civil-society-down-to-earth#comments The Transparency of NGOs: Lessons from experience https://uia.org/archive/transparency-ngos <span class="field-label"> Author: </span> <div class="field-author inline"> Anne Marie Boutin </div> <span class="field-label"> Year: </span> <div class="field-archive-year inline"> 2 000 </div> <div class="field-body"> <p>By Anne Marie Boutin<br /> Conseiller maître à la Cour des Comptes, Paris<br /> This article was published in French in <em><cite><a href="/journals?field_category_tid%5B%5D=235&amp;combine=&amp;items_per_page=5">Transnational Associations</a></cite></em>, Issue <a href="/sites/uia.org/files/journals/Transnational_Associations_Journal_2000-1_0.pdf">1/2000</a>, 8-11. All rights reserved. Article publié dans <em><cite><a href="/journals?field_category_tid%5B%5D=235&amp;combine=&amp;items_per_page=5">Associations Transnationales</a></cite></em>, Issue <a href="/sites/uia.org/files/journals/Transnational_Associations_Journal_2000-1_0.pdf">1/2000</a>, 8-11. Tous droits réservés. </p> <br /> <p><i>As president of the Union of international associations (UIA), I have a strong interest in the theme of this seminar. This issue is certainly, with the subject of protection for NGOs, one of the main challenges for the future of NGOs willing to be recognized as key actors in the civil society.</i></p> <p><i>But my personal knowledge concerning this question comes from my experience in Cour des comptes, the french national audit office, where I was involved in the first public audits of "charity organisations" made in our country.</i></p> <p><i>I would like to share with you the lessons of this experience and will try to propose some directions to explore on the next two days.</i></p> <p> The extension of the competency of Cour des comptes on these organisations is very new. It was settled in 1991 by a law but really began with their accountings for 1993. </p> <p> The story begins at the end of the eighty’s, when France discovered mismanagement and corruption problems in different « charities », including the « Red cross ». At that time, we realised that there were in France about 20 « charities » receiving more than 25 million euros per year from donators. As they were allowed by the fiscal law, many people were deducting half of their donation from their income tax and a lot of charities were funding important research projects led by public research centres, thus giving strong orientations to the national research policy. </p> <p> For all these reasons, the quality of the management of these organisation was of great interest for everybody. But they had no legal obligations and their management was not controlled by any official body. The Cour des comptes was allowed to audit those who received public subsidies , and only for the amount of these subsidies. For example, nobody was allowed to control the ARC (Association de recherche sur le cancer), even if a lot of problems which were discovered later were suspected for years. </p> <p> At the beginning of the 90s, two initiatives were undertook. The first came from the charities themselselves, which decided to organise their self discipline and mutual vigilance. The second was originated by the Parliament who decided to implement a legal frame for their organisation and control . </p> <p> Organisation of self discipline and mutual vigilance. </p> <p> In november 1989, a group of 18 amongst the bigest french « charities » decided to make their own policy, to define their own ethical principles and organise their self discipline and mutual vigilance. </p> <p> They create the <i>« Committee of the Charter of organisations asking for personal generosity » </i>(known in France by its shortened name « Comité de la charte ») which rapidly decided to adopt four principles : </p> <ul> <li>Financial transparency </li> <li>Quality of projects and honesty of messages </li> <li>Strict methodology for funds research </li> <li>Internal control of the respect of commitments </li> </ul> <p> They organise their mutual control under the responsability of a watching commission (in french « commission de surveillance »). Each organisation has to choose one censor , independant but approved by the commission, who has to report to the commission. </p> <p> The Committee also publishes recommandations to its members, including recommandations on : </p> <ul> <li>the presentation of their accountings ; </li> <li>the way to collect funds ; </li> <li>the ethics of communication policy and relations with communication agencys ; </li> <li>the role and importance of the scientific councils when appropriate ; </li> <li>the protection of individual information ; </li> <li>the use of free work and « given in kind » products. </li> </ul> <p> The ARC was not amongst the first members of the comittee which is not surprising and we had to wait for the law of 1991 to be able to organise an independant audit of the association with the consequences everybody knows.</p> <p> A legal frame of organisation and control </p> <p> According to the law of august 7<sup>th</sup> 1991, the organisations asking for funds, supplies and/or volunteers through national campaigns have to : </p> <ul> <li>declare the existence of their campaigns, and their objectives  ; </li> <li>establish - on a standardised model - the accountings corresponding to the use of the funds thus collected (in french : « compte d’emploi ») ; </li> <li>give their members access to these documents and inform their donators and public in general about the use made of the money collected. </li> </ul> <p> The Cour des comptes can decide to audit all these organisations. Its observations are send to the president of the board –or equivalent -  who has to answer and may ask to be heard. The general assembly –or equivalent – must be informed of these observations and of the answer of the president. </p> <p> These observations concern : </p> <ul> <li>the respect of the legal status of the organisation ; </li> <li>the reliability of the accountings ; including the use of volunteers and given in kind supplies ; </li> <li>the quality of management ; </li> <li>the adequacy between the announced objectives and the way the funds are employed. </li> </ul> <p> The Cour des comptes can decide to publish its observations in the french « journal officiel », in its annual report or in a separate publication. </p> <p> At the same time if the audit shows corruption problems, the Cour des comptes must inform the minister of justice and send him/or she the appriopriate information. This happened with the ARC in 1995.</p> <p> Lessons from this experience and proposals for the debate </p> <p> 1- It could be useful to organise a survey of the different situation for national and international NGOs. </p> <p> The situation in european countries is heterogenous. In some of them, there is no rule at all, and in some case NGOs do not have any status and do not present any accountings. Sometimes groups of charities organise their own discipline. In other countries, independant private bodies labellise charities who respect their rules. France seems to be the only country where the supreme audit institution have a competence on these organisations. </p> <p> 2- Self discipline and mutual vigilance must be encouraged </p> <p> Exemples of experiences like the french committee of the Charter or the german DZI could be presented with some general guidelines. A european committee could be settled. </p> <p> 3- From a legal point of view the principles of french law which declares that the accountings must be clear, the managements strict and the money used for the purpose it was made for could be generalised. </p> <p> At least, the NGOs must : </p> <ul> <li>have a legal status and respect all the obligations attached to this status </li> <li>present their accountings </li> <li>have a control of the liability of their acountings (by accounting auditors) </li> <li>have clear and honest communication </li> <li>inform their donators and public of : the way the money has been collected and use of the money collected </li> </ul> <p> If there is a control of these organisations it seems necessary to avoid all kind of « a priori » control and give more importance to a posteriori control by an independant body, like the supreme audit institution of the country where the NGO is registered. </p> <p> This control must respect the freedom of association, the authority of the executive team, and the european convention on human rights. </p> <p> The conclusion of this seminar could be a kind of manifesto from NGOs themselves claiming for a culture of transparency, implemeting their mutual vigilance and asking for general adapted rules and guidelines. </p> <p> <i>The UIA could participate to this initiative mainly by dissemination of information throught its revue and website.</i></p> </div> Fri, 12 Apr 2013 10:50:12 +0000 rachele 1921 at https://uia.org https://uia.org/archive/transparency-ngos#comments La reconnaissance et la protection des ONG en droit international https://uia.org/archive/protection-ong-droit-international <span class="field-label"> Author: </span> <div class="field-author inline"> Frits Hondius </div> <span class="field-label"> Year: </span> <div class="field-archive-year inline"> 2 000 </div> <div class="field-body"> <p>par Frits Hondius<br /> Article publié dans <em><cite><a href="/journals?field_category_tid%5B%5D=235&amp;combine=&amp;items_per_page=5">Associations transnationales</a></cite></em>, Issue <a href="/sites/uia.org/files/journals/Transnational_Associations_Journal_2000-1_0.pdf">1/2000</a>, 2-4. Tous droits réservés.<br /> This article was published in <em><cite><a href="/journals?field_category_tid%5B%5D=235&amp;combine=&amp;items_per_page=5">Transnational Associations</a></cite></em>, Issue <a href="/sites/uia.org/files/journals/Transnational_Associations_Journal_2000-1_0.pdf">1/2000</a>, 2-4. All rights reserved.</p> <p><b>Introduction</b> </p> <p> L'importance toujours croissante des ONG est indéniable, comme en témoigne l'octroi du Prix Nobel à 'Médecins sans frontières'. Fin novembre 1999, d'innombrables ONG se sont manifestées à l'occasion du Sommet à Seattle de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC), pour approuver ou désapprouver les buts de cette organisation, sur place ou sur Internet. Les ONG sont au rendez-vous dans des pays déchirés par des conflits humains, tels que le Kosovo, le Timor oriental ou la Tchétchénie, ou frappés par des catastrophes naturelles comme ce fut le cas en Turquie ou au Vénézuéla. </p> <p> Et pourtant, le statut juridique des ONG reste une affaire précaire et incertaine. La quête des ONG d'une reconnaissance de leur statut en droit international remonte à près d'un siècle. C'est en 1910 qu'une première demande dans ce sens fut formulée à Bruxelles lors du congrès mondial des associations étrangères. Quarante-six ans et deux guerres mondiales plus tard, la communauté internationale a donné un début de réponse sous la forme de la Convention de La Haye de 1956 concernant la reconnaissance de la personnalité juridique des sociétés, associations, et fondations internationales. Toutefois, les gouvernements ont continué d'exprimer de sérieuses réserves quant à un instrument de droit international privé qui, en fin de compte, n'est jamais entré en vigueur. </p> <p> Une nouvelle initiative fut lancé en 1959 par l'Union des associations internationales (UAI). Sa campagne, cette fois-ci en faveur des associations <i>internationales</i> et non seulement étrangères, s'adressa aux diverses organisations intergouvernementales. C'est l'une d'entre elles, l'Organisation pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture (la FAO), laquelle se trouve entourée d'une nébuleuse d'ONG, qui a réagi positivement. Compte tenu du fait que grand nombre d'ONG et d'OIG ont leur siège en Europe, elle suggéra que la plus ancienne et plus large d'entre elles, le Conseil de l'Europe, reprenne les propositions de l'UAI. Et c'est ce qui fut décidé. </p> <p> La liste initiale des revendications des ONG était très ambitieuse, comprenant par exemple des privilèges fiscaux. Pour sa part, le Conseil de l'Europe, conscient du dicton selon lequel "qui trop embrasse mal étreint » a réduit l'ordre du jour à un seul et unique point : la reconnaissance juridique internationale, l'alpha et l'oméga des ONG. Mais le problème fiscal n'a pas été abandonné. C'est une autre organisation, Interphil, et sa branche européenne , l'Europhil Trust, qui l'ont repris. Europhil est toujours à l'oeuvre. Elle prépare actuellement une table ronde sur la fiscalité des ONG, à tenir aux Barbades en août 2000.    </p> <p> <b>La Convention N° 124</b> </p> <p> Le 24 avril 1986, soit plus de 75 ans après le Résolution de Bruxelles, une Convention européenne sur la reconnaissance de la personnalité juridique des organisations non gouvernementales internationales a finalement vu le jour. Elle fut signée à Strasbourg lors d'une cérémonie en présence du secrétaire général de l'UAI de l'époque , le regretté Georges Patrick Speeckaert, l'un de ses pères spirituels. Elle a éte enregistrée comme Convention N° 124 dans la Série des Traités Européens. Elle est entrée en vigueur le 1<sup>er</sup> janvier 1991. La Convention n° 124 est un texte court et clair qui comporte onze articles . Selon la Convention, toute ONG internationale, créée conformément au droit d'un pays A, est<b> </b>automatiquement reconnue en tant que telle dans les pays B, C et D, parties à la Convention - elle est le premier et le seul instrument international juridique du monde en cette matière. </p> <p> Neuf pays ont ratifié ou signé la Convention et on s'attend à ce que d'autres pays, notamment en Europe centrale et orientale, suivront le bon exemple. Parmi ces neuf pays, il s'en trouve quatre qui comptent une population importante d'ONG : le Royaume Uni, la Belgique, la France et la Suisse. Ensuite, deux pays en Europe Centrale, l'Autriche et la Slovénie, jouent le rôle particulier de trait d'union entre l' Est et de l'Ouest. Deux autres pays parties ont des relations spéciales avec des ONG étrangères : Il s'agit de la Grèce, où sont implantés de nombreux instituts archéologiques étrangers, et le Portugal, pays hôte du Centre Nord-Sud du Conseil de l'Europe pour l'interdépendance et la solidarité. Signalons enfin que Chypre prépare sa ratification après avoir signé en 1998, sans doute pour affirmer son ferme attachement à l'Europe. Curieusement, un pays, Malte, invoque la portée très large de la Convention pour ne pas vouloir la ratifier pour l'instant : c'est le mauvais souvenir du comportement des syndicats sous le régime de Dom Mintoff. Nous constatons donc que la Convention peut répondre à différents intérêts qui justifient sa ratification ou qui appellent des réserves. Mais disons aussi clairement que mis à part tous ces objectifs particuliers, c'est le principe même de la reconnaissance des ONG internationales en tant qu'acteurs de la société civile qui est en cause. </p> <p> <b>ONG pour la démocratie et pour les droits de l'homme</b> </p> <p> La Convention N° 124 a été préparée avant l'effondrement du communisme. Elle était axée sur la coopération entre ONG du monde occidental ainsi que sur les relations entre celles-ci et les pays du tiers monde. Personne n'avait osé rêver du rôle qu'allaient jouer un jour les ONG, telles Solidarno'c ou Neues Forum, dans le processus menant à la fin du communisme et au retour des pays de l'Europe centrale et orientale à la démocratie, aux droits de l'homme et à l'Etat de droit. </p> <p> Même après la chute du mur de Berlin, les ONG d'Europe centrale et orientale sont restées à la pointe du mouvement, d'une part pour combler le vide laissé par le recul de l'Etat et, d'autre part, en tant que partenaires indépendants des gouvernements et des organisations intergouvernementales. Le Conseil de l'Europe a developpé un programme important d'assistance et de coopération avec l'Europe centrale et orientale afin de mettre en valeur un nouveau cadre politique et juridique pour les ONG. A côté de diverses programmes bilatéraux dans tous les pays de la région ' soulignons que le Conseil de l'Europe compte parmi ses membres la presque totalité de ces pays, allant de la Lituanie à la Géorgie et de l'Albanie à la Russie - le Conseil organise des programmes multilatéraux à Strasbourg, par exemple « Associations et fondations » (novembre 1996) et « Statut juridique des ONG et leur rôle dans une démocratie pluraliste » (mars 1998). </p> <p> Répondant à un v'u formulé par les ONG lors de ces réunions, le Conseil est actuellement en train d'élaborer une Charte pour le développement d'un cadre juridique des ONG en Europe. Il s'agit non seulement des ONG internationales , mais aussi de celles qui se situent aux niveaux national et local. N'oublions pas que le succès des ONG internationales dépend dans une large mesure de la solidité de leur assise nationale. Ces projets sont mis en oeuvre par le Conseil en collaboration avec d'autres organisations internationales, telles que la Commission européenne, l'OSCE, l'OCDE, le processus de Royaumont, etc. </p> <p></p><center> </center><p></p> <p> <b>Reconnaissance</b> </p> <p> La reonnaissance de son statut juridique est une question primordiale pour toute ONG internationale. Nombre d'ONG oeuvrent en coopération étroite avec les instances intergouvernementales : les Nations unies à New York et à Genève, l'Unesco à Paris, l'OMS à Genève, le Conseil de l'Europe à Strasbourg, la Commission européenne à Bruxelles. Les garanties fiscales, financières et sécuritaires, voire les privilèges et immunités dont sont dotées les OIG aiguisent l'appétit des ONG. 'Pourquoi eux et pas nous '' La question de savoir si une organisation internationale est OIG ou ONG, c'est-à-dire publique ou privée, dépend d'un choix fondamental mais qui se réduit souvent, en pratique, à des questions de commodité. La Commission internationale de l''Etat Civil, OIG dont l''auteur du présent article a été secrétaire général adjoint pendant six ans, a commencé son existence comme simple amicale, donc ONG. Et citons le cas du Mouvement européen, ONG dans le sens le plus noble du terme, qui a été à l'origine du Conseil de l'Europe et de l'Union européenne. </p> <p> Il n'existe pas de régime juridique purement international pour les ONG. S'il est vrai que certains pays, comme la Belgique, offrent un statut particulier dans leur droit interne aux ONG étrangères ou internationales, ceci n'empêche pas que ces ONG soient et restent belges. </p> <p> Il reste parfaitement loisible à une ONG de n'avoir aucune attache avec un pays déterminé. Tel fut le cas pendant 50 ans du Bureau international du scoutisme. Celui-ci n'avait pas de nationalité et était suspendu pour ainsi dire dans l'air. Mais arrive tôt ou tard le moment où l' ONG internationale se voit simplement forcé par les circonstances d'acquérir un statut quelque part: elle emploie du personnel, loue un bureau, ouvre un compte bancaire. Tout cela n'est possible que si elle existe juridiquement comme sujet de droit d'un pays donné. </p> <p> Une fois acquis ce statut, l'ONG souhaite voir son statut en pays A reconnu par les pays B, C et D. Ceci est possible par la conclusion de traités bilatéraux A&gt;B, A&gt;C, B&gt;C, etc. </p> <p> Toutefois il est beaucoup plus pratique d'arranger l'affaire par un traité multilatéral. Non seulement la formule mathématique démontre que lorsque 10 pays ont le choix entre traités bilatéraux ou un traité multilatéral, leur choix va entre 45 traités ou un seul. Mais en outre le traité multilatéral offre le grand avantage d'un texte unique, d'un seul contenu et de la présence d'une organisation qui fait le travail de rédaction et qui assure le suivi. </p> <p> Pour toute ONG internationale, le reconnaissance signifie pour elle la capacité de se livrer à des activités dans différents pays sans être inquiétée par des formalités supplémentaires imposées par chacun de ces pays. </p> <p> Certains Etats qui ne sont pas pour l'instant parties à la Convention N° 124 ont argumenté que cela n'est pas nécessaire : notre droit interne n'est-il pas en harmonie complète avec la Convention N° 124, nos tribunaux et administrations ne reconnaissent-ils pas les ONG étrangères sans distinction de leur forme juridique ' Ces arguments manquent le point essentiel. Même si le droit interne d'un pays n'admet pas la torture, ceci n'empêche pas ledit pays d'adhérer à une convention internationale contre la torture. Tout au contraire, aucun pays ne peut devenir partie à un traité international aussi longtemps que son droit interne n'est pas conforme. Il y a encore plus : d'abord le respect du statut d'ONG étrangère garanti par le droit du pays A ne signifie nullement l'inverse, que le statut de ses propres ONG soit reconnu dans ces autres pays. Et surtout, il y a un océan de différence entre l'octroi d'avanta ges particuliers aux ONG internationales par le droit interne et l'engagement solennel pris par un Etat devant la communauté mondiale de reconnaître l'identité des ONG internationales. Ceci ne peut se faire autrement que par une convention internationale. </p> <p> <b>Les ONG ont le droit d'être protégées</b> </p> <p> Les libertés en matière d' ONG qui sont garanties par les articles 9, 10 et 11 de la Convention européenne des Droits de l'homme (liberté de conscience, d'expression et d'association) sont autant de droits fondamentaux que les Etats sont tenus à respecter et à protéger. En contrepartie, de nombreuses ONG apportent leur aide au maintien du système international de protection des droits de l'homme. Le Tribunal pénal international, dont le statut a été adopté en 1998 à Rome par les gouvernements, n'aurait jamais vu le jour, au moins dans cette forme, sans le soutien et le militantisme des ONG. </p> <p> Les ONG ont le droit d'être reconnues et d'être protégées. L'étude internationale concernant les problèmes de sécurité des ONG menée en 1998 par le professeur Mario Bettati (Université de Paris) et son équipe de chercheurs sous l'égide de l'UAI a résulté en un catalogue sinistre d'agressions dont sont victimes les ONG et leurs personnels, allant de vols et confiscations jusqu'à des actes de violence et d'assassinats. Il n'est guère surprenant que plusieurs des organisations interviewées aient indiqué qu'elles s'attendaient au renforcement de leur protection par les gouvernements. Nous sommes d'avis que certains actes de violence contre les ONG qui ont été répertoriés par le rapport Bettati tombent dans la définition de crimes contre l'Humanité définis par l'Article 7 (1) h du Statut de Rome du Tribunal pénal international. </p> <p> Dans cette optique, l'adhésion à la Convention N° 124 est une démarche qui s'impose à tous les Etats avec une nécessité d'autant plus pressante. </p> <div align="right"> <p> <i>Janvier 2000</i> </p> </div> <ul> <li> <i>L'auteur est ancien directeur adjoint des Droits de l'homme et des affaires juridiques du Conseil de l'Europe et ancien secrétaire général adjoint de la Commission internationale de l'Etat Civil. En 1990 il a assisté en tant que dépositaire à la cérémonie du dépôt de la ratification belge de la Convention N° 124, acte par lequel cette Convention est entrée en vigueur. Ancien président d'Interphil, M. Hondius est à présent membre du Conseil de l'UAI et Chief Trustee de l'Euophil Trust.</i> </li></ul> </div> Fri, 12 Apr 2013 10:33:41 +0000 rachele 1920 at https://uia.org https://uia.org/archive/protection-ong-droit-international#comments Cosmopolitiques: Retour à la société civile https://uia.org/archive/cosmopolitiques <span class="field-label"> Author: </span> <div class="field-author inline"> Paul Ghils </div> <span class="field-label"> Year: </span> <div class="field-archive-year inline"> 1 997 </div> <div class="field-body"> <p>par Paul Ghils<br /> Union des associations internationales &amp; Haute Ecole de Bruxelles</p> <p>Published in <em><cite><a href="/journals?field_category_tid%5B%5D=235&amp;combine=&amp;items_per_page=5">Associations Transnationales / Transnational Associations</a></cite></em>, Issue <a href="/sites/uia.org/files/journals/Transnational_Associations_Journal_1997-3_0.pdf">3/1997</a>, pp 172-176<br /> Tous droits réservés / All rights reserved.</p> <ul> <li>"The Conscience of the World". The Influence of Non-Governmental organisations in the UN System, edited by Peter Willetts, Hurst and Company, London, 1996.</li> <li>A World in Need of Leadership: Tomorrow's United Nations, by Brian Urquhart and Erskine Childers, Ford Foundation/Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation, Uppsala, 1996.</li> <li>Toward a More Effective UN. Research Project on a More Effective UN Options and Japan' Options,by Tatsuro Kunugi et al., PHP Research Institute, Tokyo, 1996.</li> <li>Kant et la paix perpétuelle, par Jürgen Habermas, Cerf, Paris, 1997.</li> </ul> <p>La plupart des propositions de réforme des Nations unies visent la rationalisation du fonctionnement de l'Organisation mondiale ou les coupes budgétaires qu'elle devrait subir. On se souviendra que le rôle des Nations unies avait fait quelque temps l'objet d'âpres débats à la suite de la fin de la guerre froide et comme conséquence de l'espoir de voir se fonder un "nouvel ordre mondial" qui tournerait le dos à l'ancien, où le destin des sociétés humaines se voyait soumis aux intérêts et à la tutelle des coalitions étatiques d'un monde bipolarisé. De façon plus pragmatique et selon une rationalité variablement définie, un nombre croissant d'organisations non gouvernementales investit les grandes conférences onusiennes - Rio de Janeiro pour l'écologie, Vienne pour les droits de l'homme, Le Caire pour la démographie, Copenhague pour la questions sociales, Berlin pour le climat de la Planète, Pékin pour le statut des femmes dans la société - tandis que certains centres de recherches, souvent non gouvernementaux, avancent leurs propres projets de réforme de l'Organisation mondiale. Les ouvrages recensés ci-après abordent dans des perspectives très différentes quelques aspects - fonctionnement interne et relations OIG/ONG, refondation de l'architecture institutionnelle, perspectives philosophiques du droit et de la justice respectivement - de l'ordre/désordre mondial. </p> <p>Le livre collectif dirigé par Peter Willetts sous le titre "<em><cite>The Conscience of the World</cite></em>", et dont le sous-titre plus explicite annonce <em>The Influence of Non-Governmental Organisations in the U.N. System</em>, constitue sans doute un excellent tour d'horizon du rôle joué par les ONG dans les divers organes et agences des Nations unies. De facture classique, il s'inscrit dans la traditions des ouvrages consacrés à ce sujet, inaugurée par J.S. Nye et O. Keohane en 1970et à laquelle P. Willetts, qui enseigne les relations internationales à l'université de Londres, a précédemment contribué. On notera en passant l'intérêt croissant que les politologues professionnels manifestent pour ce domaine d'étude, le présent ouvrage étant lui même le fruit d'une initiative du David Davies Memorial Insitute of International Studies de Londres. Les contributions des divers auteurs, cadres d'organisations internationales (intergouvernementales ou non), diplomates ou spécialistes universitaires, couvrent un échantillon raisonnablement significatif des domaines relevant du domaine annoncé dans le titre. Relevant le caractère profondément hétérogène du monde des ONG et de l'imprécision des notions relevant de la catégorie des "acteurs transnationaux", P. Willetts concède que la qualification de "conscience du monde" ne se justifie que pour certains d'entre eux, plus particulièrement dans le domaine des droits de l'homme (d'où les guillemets du titre principal). Plus fréquemment, l'absence de communauté de valeurs au sein du monde des ONG, voire les antagonismes qui les opposent, restent un obstacle au soutien inconsidéré de leur action comme à la condamnation sans nuances de l'action des gouvernements. Aussi l'objectif de l'ouvrage n'est-il pas de mobiliser l'appui de l'opinion en faveur de l'une ou l'autre des catégories d'ONG concernées, mais de démontrer que la politique onusienne ne peut être comprise ni évaluée sans tenir compte de leur influence. Propos illustré tant par les contributions retraçant l'affirmation progressive du rôle des ONG sur la scène internationale, depuis le Congrès de Vienne jusqu'à la Conférence de San Francisco, que par les études de cas centrées sur des questions plus ponctuelles liées aux agences des Nations unies (Banque mondiale, UNESCO, statuts consultatifs), à la gestion de certaines questions (environnement, droits des femmes, rédaction de la Convention des droits de l'enfant) ou à des organisations particulières (Amnesty International, Save the Children Fund). L'ensemble révèle un apport variable de l'action associative internationale, entre l'exécution des tâches et la promotion de causes déterminées. Il révèle aussi, malgré la nécessité soulignée par le directeur de la publication de l'élargissement du cadre théorique et de la multiplication des données empiriques du champ des relations internationales, la nature restreinte et convenue des notions et actions regroupées sous le vocable ONG. On retrouve les droits de l'homme, l'environnement, le développement et la santé, comme dans la plupart des ouvrages du genre, sans qu'aucune explication soit donnée à l'absence d'autres domaines (coopération scientifique, promotion des intérêts économiques et commerciaux, enseignement, prosélytisme politique et religieux, etc.), dont on ne voit pas en quoi ils seraient moins "non gouvernementaux" ou plus indifférents au sort des Nations unies. </p> <p>Parmi les nombreux ouvrages proposant de réformer les Nations unies, <em><cite>A World in Need of Leadership: Tomorrow's United Nations</cite></em>, rédigé par deux anciens fonctionnaires de l'Organisation, Brian Urquhart et Erskine Childers (récemment décédé), est tombé au meilleur moment du débat relatif au choix du secrétaire général, relancé par la controverse née de la fin de mandat de Boutros Boutros-Ghali. La procédure actuelle, qui est fondée sur la candidature formelle d'un personnage, généralement un vétéran du système, retenu pour raisons politiques par les cinq membres (permanents) du Conseil de sécurité disposant du droit de véto, est jugée dépassée. Aussi les auteurs recommandent-ils d'appeler une personnalité "charismatique et dont l'autorité soit reconnue" à remplir la fonction de dirigeant de l'Organisation, selon une procédure qui soit à la fois plus systématique, plus créative et plus démocratique. La formule proposée est audacieuse, prévoyant un mandat de sept ans non seulement pour le secrétaire général, mais aussi pour tous les hauts responsables des Nations unies. Un comité de sélection serait mis sur pied pour rechercher les talents cachés, examiner les candidatures et sélectionner celles qui semblent les plus adéquates. Ce comité, qui impliquerait l'abandon du principe du véto, lancerait un appel aux candidats avant de retenir de cinq à dix noms, rendus publics par le Conseil de sécurité. Suivrait alors une période de trente jours au cours de laquelle toutes suggestions et tous commentaires pourraient être faits par les gouvernements, les parlements, les associations et les médias, aboutissant à une liste restreinte de candidats appelés à exposer devant le Conseil de sécurité l'idée qu'ils se font de la fonction qu'ils briguent. </p> <p>La perspective dégagée par les chercheurs universitaires japonais du PHP Institute de Tokyo dans <em><cite>Toward a More Effective UN. Research Project on a More Effective UN Options and Japan Options</cite></em> part du constat pessimiste que les Etats dominants de la Planète s'éloignent progressivement des Nations unies, jusqu'à douter de la viabilité à long moyen terme de l'Organisation. S'inquiétant de l'affaiblissement de l'intérêt porté à une éventuelle réforme du système, les auteurs prônent une refonte "réaliste" des Nations unies avant que l'aggravation des problèmes mondiaux ou l'apparition de nouveaux conflits ne viennent compromettre toute maîtrise du processus. "Réaliste" doit ici s'entendre comme réponse à la complexité de la situation, qui dépasse les compétences des seuls Etats et requiert par conséquent l'apport complémentaire d'autres acteurs, tels que d'autres organisations internationales (régionales par exemple) et les organisations et sociétés privées, toutes appelées à prendre leur part dans la recherche du "bien mondial" (<em>global interest</em>). La proposition est encore plus ambitieuse que celle de Urquhart et Childers, et s'inscrit dans un vaste projet de "gestion de la Planète" (<em>global management</em>) affectant aussi bien le cadre institutionnel que la substance des fonctions qui seraient dévolues aux nouvelles institutions. </p> <p>Les domaines définis comme prioritaires sont au nombre de quatre. En premier lieu, le système de sécurité collective devrait s'en tenir aux principes traditionnels (accord préalable des parties, non-coercition, impartialité), prévoyant une intervention décidée et rapide s'agissant du maintien de la paix, mais évitant toute extension abusive empiétant sur ce qui relève des opérations de pacification et dépasse la compétence des Nations unies. Les actions décidées devront s'appuyer notamment sur la création d'un "corps de réaction rapide des Nations unies", d'un centre de diplomatie préventive , d'un forum du désarmement et d'un fonds des Nations unies pour la paix. Le deuxième domaine concerne la démocratie et l'efficacité du système, subordonnées à l'inclusion dans le Conseil de sécurité de six nouveaux membres permanents (sans droit de véto, dont l'Allemagne et le Japon), de représentants régionaux (Asie, Afrique, Amérique latine, Europe et al.) et, pour les membres non permanents, de représentants régionaux. Le droit de véto devrait être revu parallèlement, dans le sens de sa qualification et de la limitation de son exercice. Est par ailleurs proposée, pour répondre à la multipolarisation des organes appelés à défendre le bien commun, la création d'une "seconde assemblée générale des Nations unies" comme organe subsidiaire de l'Assemblée générale actuelle et comprenant des représentants de l'Union interparlementaire, d'acteurs non étatiques tels que les ONG, les organisations à but non lucratif (on perçoit mal la distinction entre ces deux catégories) et les sociétés multinationales. Cette seconde chambre serait chargée de faire des recommandations à l'Assemblée générale avant toute réunion de celle-ci. Le troisième domaine concerne la réforme du Conseil économique et social, la création d'un "Conseil de sécurité humain et planétaire", d'une "Conférence ministérielle commune" (regroupant le secrétaire général et les instances dirigeantes des grandes agences) et d'une "Autorité des Nations unies pour le développement". Le quatrième volet concerne l'établissement de mécanismes de financement suffisants, sûrs et équilibrés et la rationalisation radicale et de l'unification du budget (impliquant notamment la supression de postes devenues superflus, comme ceux du Conseil de tutelle, de la CNUCED et de l'ONUDI). On le voit, l'ampleur des réformes préconisées par l'Institut de Tokyo est à la mesure même des lourdes réticences suscitées par l'idée même de réformer les Nations unies, et pose donc, paradoxalement, la question du réalisme de ces propositions (cependant souligné par les auteurs) et de leur possibilité. </p> <p>Dans un tout autre ordre d'idées, la conception du droit et de la justice dans le monde met aux prises, dans le débat contemporain, deux perspectives différenciées. On pourrait dire, schématiquement, que l'une est fondée sur le libéralisme politique de John Rawls et conditionne l'accès des partenaires sociaux à l'équité et à la distribution des biens par l'accès, lui aussi postulé comme libre, aux rôles sociaux. Les injustices sociales qui apparaissent dans la société encadrée par l'Etat libéral ne seraient dues, dans cette perspective, qu'aux contingences historiques. L'autre conception se fonde sur la proposition d'une société "communicationnelle" qui repose sur la conviction que le capitalisme avancé ne peut que renforcer et exacerber les injustices qui naîtraient de la sorte d'un destin non maîtrisé et non maîtrisable. Cette deuxième conception de la justice et du droit exige certes l'ouverture de l'espace public à une discussion à laquelle participeraient un maximum d'acteurs, selon une logique et une dynamique qui aboutirait à refonder la fonction législative en fonction des besoins et des normes ainsi redéfinies par les acteurs, en l'occurrence du système international. Les critiques de cette idée n'ont pas manqué d'y voir une nouvelle forme de l'idéalisme d'inspiration kantienne, d'une <em>cosmopolitique</em> dont la réalisation serait définitivement interdite par la perdurance du pluralisme culturel, et donc de l'"incommunication" qui condamne à un relativisme indépassable. Sans doute le système kantien était-il fondé sur l'idée d'une "paix perpétuelle" éloignée des réalités du temps et qui, aujourd'hui encore et avec raison, paraîtra utopiste, mais dont on ne peut nier qu'elle était malgré cela attentive à certains événements historiques, tels que l'impact des Lumières et de la Révolution française ou les intérêts contradictoires des différents Etats. Si donc l'instauration d'une <em>cosmopolitique</em> relevait plus d'une projection, d'une vision utopiste ou d'une anticipation, il n'en va plus de même de nos jours. Le droit des citoyens du monde projeté par Kant en complément des dimensions classiques de la théorie du droit - le droit étatique et le droit des gens - est en train de prendre racine sous nos yeux, non plus comme idéal politique "mondialiste", mais comme nécessité, ce dont témoignent l'émergence d'une opinion publique internationale et les tentatives de refondation de l'ordre institutionnel mondial. </p> <p>Si l'origine conceptuelle de l'"opinion publique" remonte à Kant, c'est au XXe siècle que le terme acquiert toute son sens. La notion kantienne de confédération mondiale conditionnée par la mise en place d'un dialogue permanent relatif au type de comportenment que les Etats devraient adopter se trouve aujourd'hui amplifiée, selon une progression inflatoire qui brouille les catégories. La notion de "société civile", que la même inflation a propulsé depuis la fin de la seconde guerre mondiale dans la sphère transnationale, appelle les mêmes remarques. Car si la notion est elle aussi d'origine kantienne, dans la mesure où c'est Kant qui a instauré au niveau philosophique la dichotomie entre société civile et Etat, elle requiert une nouvelle conceptualisation, au delà des catégories rationnelles du droit telles que Kant les formulait dans le contexte historique de son temps (L'Etat de droit démocratique, tel qu'il venait de voir le jour à la suite des révolutions américaine et française, faisait figure d'exception). C'est précisément ce qu'entreprend Jürgen Habermas dans <em>La paix perpétuelle. Le bicentenaire d'une idée kantienne</em>, à partir de la contradiction de la construction kantienne, entre l'association volontaire des Etats et l'absence de toute juridiction internationale qui s'imposerait à eux, au delà de la simple obligation <em>morale</em> proclamée en commun par ces derniers. L'auteur montre en quoi le projet de "paix perpétuelle" était à la fois clairvoyant et illusoire. Clairvoyant par la perception qu'il exprimait de l'interdépendance croissante des sociétés et l'économisation des relations internationales (par l'échange des informations, des personnes et des marchandises); illusoire en ce qu'il ne pouvait prévoir les tensions sociales que nourrirait une industrialisation capitaliste accélérée, les guerres civiles qui s'ensuivraient et l'orientation consécutive de la politique extérieure vers un impérialisme belliqueux. Habermas montre en quoi une économisation devenue "mondialisation" tous azimuts des relations matérielles et symboliques, si elle continue d'intensifier les interactions entre le local et le lointain, fragilise dans le même temps des sociétés dont la complexité et la technicité ne les mettent pas à l'abri de conflits devenus locaux mais dont l'intensité s'accroît elle aussi. Sans doute l'avènement des acteurs non étatiques, dont Habermas aperçoit justement le rôle novateur et transformateur au sein du système international, sape-t-il peu à peu la souveraineté des Etats et annonce-t-il la formation d'un espace public planétaire, accréditant par là la thèse de la genèse d'une société civile internationale de nature réticulaire. L'idée kantienne d'état cosmopolitique peut alors être reformulée par Habermas dans une triple perspective : celle de la souveraineté extérieure des Etats et de la transformation des relations interétatiques ("transformer l'état de nature entre les Etats en état de droit", p. 122), celle de la souveraineté intérieure des Etats et des limitations normatives de la politique de puissance classique, et enfin celle de la stratification de la société mondiale ainsi que de la mondialisation des risques, qui appellent un nouveau concept de paix. La constitution d'un droit cosmopolitique qui, selon Habermas, est en train de naître, engagerait les gouvernements suppose la transformation des relatione entre l'individu et l'Etat et viserait, "par-delà les sujets collectifs du droit international, le statut des sujets de droit individuels, fondant pour ceux-ci une appartenance directe à l'association des cosmopolites libres et égaux" (p. 57). Elle suppose aussi une réforme des Nations unies impliquant l'abandon du modèle actuel, conçu comme "Congrès permanent des Nations", et l'adoption d'un modèle bicaméral dont l'un des élements serait constitué d'une "Chambre élue au suffrage direct", où "les peuples ne seraient plus représentés par leurs gouvernements, mais en tant que totalité des citoyens du monde" (p. 77), et "Les pays qui refuseraient de faire élire leurs députés selon des procédures démocratiques (dans le cadre d'élections où l'on tiendrait compte des minorités nationales) pourraient être représentés par des organisations non étatiques que le Parlement mondial nommerait lui-même pour représenter les populations opprimées". Il y a là l'esquisse d'un projet qui dépasse effectivement, tout en s'en inspirant, selon le voeu de l'auteur, le projet kantien de "paix perpétuelle". On y retrouve les linéaments du programme de l'"éthique iscursive" proposé par Habermas et Apel, qui renouvelle l'ensemble de la tradition de l'éthique procédurale par l'une des démarches les plus intéressantes, à notre sens, de la pensée politique contemporaine. Cependant, les propositions reprises dans cet ouvrage concis mais passionnant nous semblent marquées par deux faiblesses, l'une pratique et l'autre philosophique. Sur le plan pratique, l'auteur semble en effet sous-estimer, à supposer qu'un modèle fédéraliste mondial soit souhaitable (ce qui en soi nous semble déjà discutable), la complexité comme le caractère flou et vague (au sens logique de ces deux termes) de cette véritable nébuleuse que constitue l'ensemble des acteurs non étatiques, de même que les antagonismes qui les caractérisent autant que les convergences qui pourraient fonder une "éthique de la discussion" d'extension mondiale. Sur le plan philosophique ensuite, où Habermas semble succomber, après avoir justement montré le "voile d'ignorance" qui ne pouvait pas ne pas caractériser l'expérience historique limitée dont Kant pouvait se prévaloir, à une forme d'idéalisme, voire d'angélisme, à l'endroit des acteurs non étatiques. Si ceux-ci sont en effet fondés à représenter dans certains cas la "conscience du monde" évoquée par Peter Willetts, ils incarnent tout autant les divisions interétatiques qu'ils reproduisent dans la sphère non étatique ou, pire encore, en recréent qui leur sont propres, par de nouvelles hiérarchies d'où la puissance, heureusement devenue symbolique, n'est certainement pas absente. On pourrait trouver là le fondement non pas de la certitude rationnelle et monologique d'un espace public mondial et transparent que Kant aurait anticipé et auquel Habermas voudrait croire, il est vrai sous une forme renouvelée et rendue dialogique, mais plutôt de l'incertitude qui plane sur la possibilité même de cet espace public. C'est là toute la différence entre l'espace public transparent et circonscrit, sensible à l'argumentation, porté par l'opinion d'une couche relativement réduite de citoyens cultivés du 18e siècle, et l'espace de turbulences où s'entremêlent aujourd'hui les formes diversifiées de l'étatique et de l'interétatique, dont on ne sait trop si elles sont justifiables d'une théorie du chaos ou de la logique des magmas, ou si l'ordre/désordre qu'elles constituent sont le prélude d'une reconstruction à l'échelle planétaire. </p> </div> Fri, 12 Apr 2013 10:14:27 +0000 rachele 1919 at https://uia.org https://uia.org/archive/cosmopolitiques#comments Functional Classification in an Integrative Matrix of Human Preoccupations https://uia.org/archive/functional-classification <span class="field-label"> Author: </span> <div class="field-author inline"> Anthony Judge </div> <div class="field-body"> <p>This article is about an experimental subject configuration for the exploration of interdisciplinary relationships between organizations, problems, strategies, values and human development, from the <em><a href="/yearbook">Yearbook of International Organizations</a></em>.</p> <p>First presented in outline form to the 5th Network Meeting of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development (GPID) project of the United Nations University (Montreal 1980). Presented in amplified form to a sub-group of that project (Athens, 1982). First published in International Classification 11 (1984), 2, pp 69-76 and 11 (1984), 3. Subsequently published in successive editions of the <em>Yearbook of International Organizations</em>, with amendments.</p> <p>Please use the links on the right to navigate the article.</p> </div> Thu, 11 Apr 2013 13:12:15 +0000 rachele 1918 at https://uia.org https://uia.org/archive/functional-classification#comments Changing relationships between International Non-Governmental Organizations and the United Nations https://uia.org/archive/ingos-un <span class="field-label"> Author: </span> <div class="field-author inline"> Cyril Ritchie </div> <div class="field-author inline"> Andrew Rice </div> <span class="field-label"> Year: </span> <div class="field-archive-year inline"> 1 995 </div> <div class="field-body"> <p><b>Introduction</b></p><p>Fifty years after the founding of the United Nations, transnational associations --commonly referred to as international non-governmental organizations or INGOs -- have become major players on the international scene. The emergence during the past two decades of these organizations is one of the most striking global phenomena of the late 20th century. Although still inadequately recognised by some scholars of international relations, INGOs have become a significant third force in international systems, paralleling, although not yet equalling, the expanding role of inter-governmental organizations in the political sphere and the rapid globalization of business in the economic sphere. As the UN Secretary-General himself has recently said, "NGOs are an essential part of the legitimacy without which no international activity can be meaningful".</p><p><a name="text1" id="text1"></a>INGOs are the transnational organizational manifestations of what is now increasingly called "civil society" -- which, in the words of UN Under-Secretary-General Nitin Desai, is "the sphere in which social movements organize themselves around objectives, constituencies, and thematic interests". Civil society, thus defined, is itself composed (in the language of Agenda 21 of the UN Conference on Environment and Development) of "major groups" who reflect those various interests.</p><p>The new importance of INGOs is derived specifically from several significant changes in human society. These changes include:</p><blockquote><p>1) the enormous expansion of non-governmental organizations at local and national levels, particularly in the countries of the Third World but also in the transtition states of the former Soviet bloc. The gradual process of development and the accelerating process of democratization have steadily liberated human capacities from long-standing economic, political and social constraints. Just as, in the economic sector, private enterprise is becoming increasingly important, so in civil society newly empowered citizens are organising themselves spontaneously and massively to promote their individual and common welfare.</p><p>2) At the international level, the United Nations has entered a period of growing importance, fostered, on the one hand, by the end of the Cold War and, on the other, by the growing realization that national governments by themselves can no longer cope with a growing array of global problems such as preserving the integrity of the natural environment, eradicating diseases, controlling narcotics and many other threats to human security and well-being. Step-by step, therefore, the intergovernmental organizations which comprise the UN family are being asked to take on new responsibilities. The concept of "global governance" (although certainly not yet "global government") is now widely accepted.</p><p>3) An integral part of these changes has been the impressive breakthroughs in communication technologies in recent years. Immediate and direct contact among individuals and their organizations anywhere in the world is now feasible, and there is every indication that instant accessibility to all kinds of information will continue to spread rapidly.</p></blockquote><p>These three elements - the growth of citizen organizations at all levels of society, the imperative need for global action on global problems, and the remarkable ease of instant communication - have been major building blocks in the expansion of non-governmental organizations at the global level and have led to the increasing relationship between them and the UN family. As Under-Secretary-General Desai has put it, "NGOs... no longer simply have a consumer relationship with the United Nations. They have increasingly assumed the role of promoters of new ideas, they have alerted the world community to emerging issues, and they have developed expertise and talent which... have become vital for the work of the United Nations, both at the policy and operational levels".</p><p>This changing relationship is the topic of this paper, which is offered as a contribution by the Union of International Associations to the general reexamination of the global multilateral system now under way upon the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the United Nations' creation in 1945. It seems fitting that the UAI (Union des associations internationales) should make such a contribution, since it is the oldest (established in 1910) independent centre of documentation and publication on international NGOs. Both of the study's authors are members of the UAI Executive Council and represent the UAI to the United Nations.</p><p>The authors have drawn on the UAI's substantial archives. More importantly, perhaps, they have drawn heavily on the experience of their own personal participation in INGO activities, each over nearly 40 years, as well as on the information and ideas provided by many other individuals who have been involved, in one way or another, in the connections between the international inter-governmental system and the international NGO world. We are grateful to them, and we honour their contribution on a roll deposited with the UAI headquarters.</p><p>In examining these issues, the authors have chosen to concentrate on what seem to them the most important. Before 1990, the literature on INGO/UN relations was rather slim; in the years since then it has vastly increased. Readers of this report who seek data on questions only briefly touched on this paper, or who are interested in INGO relationships with members of the UN system other than the UN itself, will therefore find the attached list of h a useful source of additional information.</p><p><b>Background</b></p><p>As a background to the issues discussed in this paper, it may be helpful to offer a very brief sketch of UN/INGO relations as they have developed over the past 50 years.</p><p>Article 71 of the UN Charter may be seen as the starting point for INGO involvement with the UN, Its inclusion in the document adopted in San Francisco came about largely, it is generally agreed, because the United States Government, eager to build public support for the new world body, included a substantial number of NGO leaders in the U.S. delegation to the conference. Reflecting their influence, Article 71 provides that the UN Economic and Social Council could establish "suitable arrangements for consultation" with INGOs.</p><p>After taking some initial interim steps, ECOSOC did establish such arrangements at its tenth session by Resolution 288B (1950) which created a three-category system of NGO recognition with different privileges of consultation accorded to each category. In 1968 this system was somewhat modified by ECOSOC Resolution 1296, although the essential provision of three categories of consultative status remained unchanged. Resolution 1296 continues in force today as the "charter" of official UN/NGO relationships in the central field of policymaking, although a UN Working Group is currently considering its modification (A companion resolution, 1297, deals with the NGO relationship in the field of dissemination of information about the United Nations).</p><p>Another important moment in the history of NGO/UN relationships was the creation in 1948 of the Conference of Non-Governmental Organizations in Consultative Status with the Economic and Social Council, commonly known as CONGO. For nearly 50 years this coordinating body has served as a watchdog of NGO interests in the consultative system and as a framework for NGO cooperation in a number of fields of common interest.</p><p>In 1972, NGO interaction with the UN system was markedly intensified with the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm. NGOs were attracted to this event in large numbers, many of them without previous connection to the world body. Two important NGO initiatives at Stockholm were the NGO Forum held parallel to the official conference and the NGO daily newspaper which provided immediate (and often critical) coverage of negotiations which otherwise would have been much less open to public scrutiny, The Stockholm pattern was repeated, and expanded, at all the subsequent UN conferences of the 70s and 80sþon population, food, women, habitat, science and technology, etc.</p><p>Of particular significance was the Second World Women's Conference held in 1985 in Nairobi, where some thousands of NGOs -- mostly women's organizations, but by no means exclusively so -- came to manifest their determination that the UN Conference would lead to meaningful and lasting progress in establishing women's rightful roles and responsibilities. This display of woman power was not lost on the governmental delegations.</p><p>With the 1990s, the NGO connection with the UN moved even more dramatically into the limelight. The precipitating event was the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) -- a conference at which, to a degree far higher than ever before, the involvement of NGOs was actively sought by the UN organizers of the official conference. The traditional boundaries of the established consultative system -- including its screening processes and criteria -- were essentially ignored, and hundreds of organizations not previously associated with the UN were encouraged to make their voices heard. In turn, the NGO role in implementing the objectives of the conference was given important emphasis in the agenda adopted at Rio.</p><p>The subsequent world conferences of the 90s have to a large extent followed the UNCED model, and it would now be inconceivable for the UN to plan any global event without the active involvement of the non-governmental sector. Secretary-General Boutros Boutros Ghali, addressing NGO representatives at the UN in September 1994, made this very clear when he said:</p><blockquote><p>"I want you to consider this your home. Until recently, these words might have caused astonishment. The United Nations was considered to be a forum for sovereign states alone. Within the space of a few short years, this attitude has changed. Non-governmental organizations are now considered full participants in international life".</p></blockquote><p>The underlying reasons for this profound change have been suggested earlier. But transformation of the UN/INGO relationship has not come easily. Disputed issues have emerged during the past five years and some remain unresolved today.</p><p>Before examining these issues, however, it is important to recall the variety of relationships which have developed over the years and the benefits -- to both the UN and the NGOs -- that the experience of earlier decades has made indisputable. From the UN point of view,</p><blockquote><p>1) NGOs can provide expert knowledge and advice, both to the decision-making bodies of the UN and to the Secretariat which implements UN decisions;</p><p>2) NGOs can present the views of important constituencies whose voices may not be adequately represented by national delegations but whose views are important to informed decision-making;</p><p>3) NGOs can be major channels for dissemination of information to their members, thus helping to fill the knowledge gap left by the inadequate coverage given by the media to UN developments;</p><p>4) NGOs can build support for UN programs by carrying out educational activities directed at the wider public (the promotion of various "days" proclaimed by UN agencies e.g., World Food Day - is one example) or by raising funds (e.g., for UNICEF);</p><p>5) In some cases close cooperation with NGOs is indispensable to UN agencies in carrying out their missions; the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, for example, contracts and cooperates extensively with NGOs in the majority of refugee situations. And the UNDP has designated certain NGOs as executing agencies for projects which it funds.</p></blockquote><p>Of course the INGO/UN relationship has not been a one-way street; non-governmental organizations serve their own purposes when they urge UN action or educate the public about UN activities. And the UN framework has also proved of value as a mechanism around which to build cooperation among themselves.</p><p><b>The Consultative Relationship</b></p><p>Despite the many ways in which the non-governmental world interacts with the intergovernmental world, the consultative relationship has remained at the heart of the interaction. And with the early 90s, and especially following UNCED, the existing pattern of this relationship came under increasing scrutiny. In 1993, therefore, ECOSOC created a special Working Group to re-examine the relationship, and its report is expected in 1996.</p><p>A central issue, of course, is which organizations shall be accorded status at the UN. On this question, the starting point is the criteria set out in Resolution 1296 which provides, inter alia:</p><blockquote><p>"The organization shall be concerned with matters falling within the competence of the Economic and Social Council... The aims and purposes of the organization shall be in conformity with the spirit, purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations... The organization shall undertake to support the work of the United Nations and to promote knowledge of its principles and activities... The organization shall be of representative character and of recognized international standing... The organization shall have an established headquarters, with an executive officer. It shall have a democratically adopted constitution... which shall provide for determination of policy... by a representative body... The basic resources of the organization shall be derived in the main part from contributions of the national affiliates... or from individual members."</p></blockquote><p>Resolution 1296, as previously noted, also includes provisions for classifying organizations into three categories. Category I organizations are large, representative bodies with interest and competence in a broad range of topics; Category II comprises those with competence in only some of the ECOSOC issues; while organizations listed on the Roster are those who can make occasional useful contributions to the work of the Council. Each category has different rights, with the ability to intervene much greater at the top than at the bottom.</p><p>The established practice, for an organization seeking accreditation in accordance with these standards has been for it to submit an application to ECOSOC's Committee on Non-Governmental Organizations. Once approved by the Committee, ECOSOC's subsequent approval has, in most cases, been pro forma (The same procedure has been followed with respect to the quadrennial reports which each accredited organization is required to submit. On the basis of these reports, or lack of them, the Committee can recommend to ECOSOC the removal of organizations not meeting the criteria).</p> </div> Wed, 10 Apr 2013 14:58:05 +0000 rachele 1916 at https://uia.org https://uia.org/archive/ingos-un#comments Index of Past Research Papers https://uia.org/archive/research-papers <div class="field-body"> <p>This is an index of research papers written by UIA staff members on various topics related to the UIA. Many of the papers are available at <a href="http://www.laetusinpraesens.org/" target="_blank">http://www.laetusinpraesens.org/</a></p> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" width="95%"><tbody> <tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X004190" id="X004190"></a>1995</td><td align="left" valign="top">Envisaging the Art of Navigating Conceptual Complexity: in search of software combining artistic and conceptual insights, <i>Knowledge Organization</i>, 22, 1, pp 2-9.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X021690" id="X021690"></a>1995</td><td align="left" valign="top">Cultivating Sustainable Psycomm-unities: recognizing the psycho-social integrities of the future Brussels, UIA, November (draft), 9 p. Report on the international conference on "Eco-villages and Sustainable Communities: models for 21st Century living" (Findhorn, October 1995) organized under the auspices of UNESCO and with the support of the Gaia Trust.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X022190" id="X022190"></a>1995</td><td align="left" valign="top">Social Exclusion: a metaphoric trap? Brussels, UIA, 1 p. Note for: Citoyenneté et sorties de l'apartheid social: 4 carrefours continentaux en amont du sommeil mondial du développement social: échos des rencontres - février et mars 1995.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X023190" id="X023190"></a>1995</td><td align="left" valign="top">Sustainable Dialogue as a Necessary Template for Sustainable Global Community Brussels, UIA, 30 p. draft. bibl. Paper for the Academy of Management conference on 'Organization Dimensions of Global Change: no limits to cooperation' Case Western Reserve University, May 1995.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X024190" id="X024190"></a>1995</td><td align="left" valign="top">Definitional Boundary Games and De-Signing the 21st Century Brussels, UIA, 6 p. Note by Anthony J N Judge in response to some contributions to the Workshop on "Who is Designing the 21st Century?" (Buffalo, September 1995) of the Center for Integrative Studies and under the auspices of the World Academy of Arts and Sciences.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X028190" id="X028190"></a>1995</td><td align="left" valign="top">Strategic Correspondences: computer-aided insight scaffolding Brussells, Union of International Associations, 12 p. bibl. Draft for comment: 3rd November 1995; scheduled for publication in <i>Knowledge Organization</i>, January 1996.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X028390" id="X028390"></a>1995</td><td align="left" valign="top">Clarification of a Mathematical Challenge for Systems Science Brussels, UIA, 5 p. bibl.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X029690" id="X029690"></a>1995</td><td align="left" valign="top">Evaluation of the Cooperation between UNESCO and Non-Governmental Organizations: uncompleted evaluation report Brussels, Union of Internation Organizations, approx 135 p. Draft prepared by Anthony J N Judge (Evaluation Team Coordinator) with the assistance of Geneviève Devillé) on behalf of Professor Emmanuel K Bavu, Professor Dr Stefan A Musto, Professor M Nawaz Sharif, in preperation for the meeting at UNESCO, 25-27 January 1995. Not for distribution.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X030290" id="X030290"></a>1995</td><td align="left" valign="top">Designing the 21st Century: through integration of the arts and sciences Brussels, Union of International Associations, 4 p. Summary by Anthony Judge of the workshop on 'Who is desining the 21st century?' (School of Architecture and Planning, State University of New York/Buffalo, September 1995) organized by the Center for Integrative Studies and the World Academy of Arts and Sciences.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X006690" id="X006690"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">Design Considerations for Spatial Metaphors: reflections on the evolution of viewpoint transportation systems 4 p. Paper prepared for the ECHT Conference, Edinburgh 18-23 September 1994.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X007690" id="X007690"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">Transdisciplinarity Through Structured Dialogue: beyound sterile dualities in meetings to the challenge of participant impotence Brussels, UIA, 12 p. Also published in: <i>The Dramatic University</i> Five, Four, Dec 1994, pp. 117-132. illus. In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 1, janvier février 1995, pp. 43-53. illus. In: <i>Knowledge Organization</i> 22, 2, pp. 82-90.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X009890" id="X009890"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">Reflections on Practical Organization of Transdisciplinary Conferences Brussels, UIA, 6 p. Contribution to preparation of the 1st World Congress on Transdisciplinarity (Arrabida, November 1994). Also published in: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 5, 1994, pp. 292-301.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X010290" id="X010290"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">La méthode européenne: un problème de spectacle? Brussels, UIA, 2 p. Note prepared for Cellule de prospective de la Commission des communautés européennes.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X010490" id="X010490"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">Valori Umani Bologna, Istituto Editoriale Universitario - Monduzzi Editore, 268 p. ISBN 88-205-0734-X. Adaption in Italian of portions of Section V published in: <i>Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Munich, SAUR, 1991.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X011190" id="X011190"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">Transdisciplinarity-3 as the Emergence of Patterned Experience: transcending duality as the conceptual equivalent of learning to walk Brussels, UIA, 20 p. draft. bibl. Contribution to the 1st World Congress of Transdisciplinarity (Arrabida, Portugal, November 1994).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X011890" id="X011890"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">NGOs and Civil Society: some realities and distortions: the challenge of 'Necessary-to-Governance Organizations (NGOs) Brussels, Union of International Associations, 22 p. bibl. Adaption of a paper presented to a Seminar on State and Society at the Russian Public Policy Center (Moscow, 6-8 December 1994) under the auspices of the Council of Europe. Provisional draft of 9th September 1994 with title: NGOs: some realities and distortions: the challenge of Necessary Governance Organizations (NGOs). Also published in: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 3, 1995, pp. 156-180, bibl.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X017290" id="X017290"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">Spherical Configuration of Categories to Reflect Systematic Patterns of Environmental Checks and Balances In: <i>International Society for Knowledge Organization. Environmental Knowledge Organization and Information Management: proceedings of the First European ISKO Conference 14-16 Sept 1994, Bratislava, Slovakia</i> Frankfurt-Main, Indeks Verlag, pp. 1-21. illus. bibl. (pp. 9-10). Knowledge Organization in Subject Areas: 1.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X023790" id="X023790"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">'The Capacity to Govern' by Yehzkel Dror: comments by Anthony J N Judge Brussels, UIA, 6 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X024290" id="X024290"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">Developing a Metaphorical Language for the Future In: <i>Slaughter, Richard A (Ed). New Thinking for a New Millenium: the knowledge base for future studies</i> London, Routledge, 1995.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X024790" id="X024790"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Future of Leadership: reframing the unknown In: <i>Futures</i> 26, 10, Dec 1994, pp. 1086-1092. bibl.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X025490" id="X025490"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">Clarification of a Mathematical Challenge for Systems Science Brussels, Union of International Associatons, 14 p. illus. bibl.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X025590" id="X025590"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">Policy Options for Civil Society Through Complementary Contrasts Brussels, UIA, 22 p. illus. Paper presented to a Seminar on State and Society at the Russian Public Policy Center (Moscow, 6-8 December 1994) under the auspices of the Council of Europe.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X027590" id="X027590"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">Resisting Consensus: new visions for WFSF constitution In: <i>Futures Bulletin</i> 20, 4, Dec 1994, pp. 2.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X027790" id="X027790"></a>1994</td><td align="left" valign="top">Misapplication of International Legal Norms in Socially Abnormal Situations: learnings from a seminar on 'State and Civil Society' organized by the Council of Europe at the Russian Public Policy Center (Moscow, December 1994) Brussels, UIA, 8 p. illus.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X006990" id="X006990"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Points for Exploration: Parliament of the World's Religions (Chicaco, August 1993) Brussels, UIA, 2 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X007190" id="X007190"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Notes on 'Partnerships for Change' Conference (Manchester, September 1993) Brussels, UIA, 4 p. draft</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X008490" id="X008490"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Envisioning the Dynamics of a World Parliament of Religions Brussels, UIA, 5 p. draft</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X008590" id="X008590"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Learnings for the Future of Inter-Faith Dialogue 2 Parts. Part I: Questions arising from the Parliament of the World's Religions (Chicago, 1993). Brussels, UIA, 1993, 20 p. Published in: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 6, 1993, pp. 345-354. Part II: Insights evoked by intractable international differences. Published in: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 1, 1994, pp. 15-22. bibl. Also published in: <i>The Dramatic University</i> 5, 1, pp. 74-86 and <i>The Dramatic University</i> 5, 2. Part II partial published in: <i>Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Munich, SAUR, 1994, pp. 573-576. Draft published under title: <i>Parliament of the World Religions (Chicago, 1993): learning for the future of inter-faith dialogue</i> Brussels, UIA, 20 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X008990" id="X008990"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Reframing the Challenges of Global Governance Through Metaphor Brussels, UIA, 4 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X009290" id="X009290"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Challenge of Civilization as a Challenge of Conceptual Scaffolding Brussels, UIA, 3 p. Paper prepared for Cellule de Prospective de la Commission des communautés européennes, 15-16 June 1993, Brussels. French title: La civilisation: un échafaudage conceptuel en défi.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X009690" id="X009690"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Quest for the Socio-Economics of Non-Action: response of Anthony J N Judge to 'Re-thinking the Central Institutions of Modern Society: sciences and business' by Willis Harman Brussels, UIA, 5 p. illus. draft Also published in: <i>Futures</i> Dec 1993, pp. 1088-1093.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X009790" id="X009790"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Préface In: <i>Beigbeder, Yves. Le rôle international des organisations non gouvernementales</i> Bruxelles, Bruylant, pp. V-VIII.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X010890" id="X010890"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Comments on Social Constructionism and Postmodernism: in the light of the Conference on Realities and Relationships (Taos NM, April 1993) Brussels, UIA, 3 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X010990" id="X010990"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Poetry-Making and Policy-Making: arranging a marriage between beauty and the beast Brussels, UIA, 99 p. bibl. draft Presentation prepared for the Schule fr Dichtung in Wien/School of Poetry in Vienna (Vienna, 13th September 1993) Another version published in: <i>Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Munich, SAUR, 1994, pp. 606-631.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X011090" id="X011090"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Parliament of the World's Religions (Chicago, 1993): learnings for the future of inter-faith dialogue Brussels, UIA, 20 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X013490" id="X013490"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Pattern of Meeting Participant Roles: shadowy 'roundtable' hidden within every meeting Brussels, UIA, 13 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X013790" id="X013790"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Varieties of Decision-Making Brussels, UIA, 2 p. Another version published in: <i>Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Munich, SAUR, 1994, pp. 537-538.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X014090" id="X014090"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Metaphor as an unexplored catalytic language for global governance Brussels, UIA, 8 p. Also published in: <i>Howard F Didsbury Jr (Ed). The Years Ahead: perils, problems and promises</i> Bethesda MD, World Futures Society, pp. 201-207. Produced in conjunction with the World Future Society's Seventh General Assembly "Creating the 21st Century: rights, responsibilities and actions" held in Washington DC, June 27 - July 1, 1993. Paper prepared for the 13th World Conference of the World Futures Studies Federation (Finland, August 1993). Scheduled for presentation to the session on: 'Theories, methods and practices of future studies'</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X014490" id="X014490"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Checklist of Possible Meeting Facilitation Services Brussels, UIA, 6 p. Presented to a session on 'Planning for Spontaneous Assistance and Techniques in Meeting Organization' at the Associate Member Meeting, UIA.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X015390" id="X015390"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Open Space Notes Brussels, UIA, 2 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X015490" id="X015490"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">The 14 Contrasting Concepts of Meaningful Employment Brussels, UIA, 2 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X015990" id="X015990"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Metaphor and the Language of Futures In: <i>Futures</i> Apr 1993, pp. 275-288.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X016290" id="X016290"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Pattern of Meeting Participant Roles: shadowy 'roundtable' hidden within every meeting Brussels, UIA, 13 p. Another version published in: <i>Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Munich, SAUR, 1994, pp. 582-586.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X016390" id="X016390"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Metaphor and the Language of Futures In: <i>Futures</i> 25, April, pp. 275-288.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X016690" id="X016690"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">UIA Software Concerns Brussels, UIA, 21 p. Presentation at the Research Institute for Applied Knowledge Processing (University of Ulm, Germany, 20th October 1993).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X017490" id="X017490"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Relevance of Rhythm and Rhyme to Policy, Management and Social Organization Brussels, UIA.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X017590" id="X017590"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">From Culturgrams to Religrams Brussels, UIA, 1 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X017890" id="X017890"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Systems of Categories Distinguishing Cultural Biases: with notes on facilitation in a multi-cultural environment Brussels, UIA, 10 p. illus.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X017990" id="X017990"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Governance Through Confidence Artistry Brussels, UIA, 4 p. Another version published in: <i>Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Munich, SAUR, 1994, pp. 543-545.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X018090" id="X018090"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">An Earth Council Identity Articulated by a Dynamic System of Metaphors Brussels, UIA, 6 p. Also published in French under the title: Une identité pour Le Conseil de la Terre articulée par un système dynamique de métaphores</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X018890" id="X018890"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Human Values as Strange Attractors: coevolution of classes of governance principles Brussels, UIA, 20 p. draft. Paper prepared for the 13th World Conference of the World Futures Studies Federation (Finland, August 1993). Scheduled for presentation to the group 'Creativity and Actors in Chaos'. Also published in: <i>The Dramatic University</i> 5, 3, pp. 12-30.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X019190" id="X019190"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Spiritual Nature of Metaphors In: <i>Dramatic University</i> 4, 1, pp. 15-19.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X019690" id="X019690"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">Comment on the 'Guide to National Sustainable Development Strategies': as submitted in draft form by the IUCN/CESP Working Group on Strategies and Sustainability and the secretariats of IUCN and IIED Brussels, UIA, 3 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X020090" id="X020090"></a>1993</td><td align="left" valign="top">La métaphore: une ressource mal-explorée pour l'éco-développement viable In: <i>Ecodecision</i> June, 9, pp. 20-23. under the title: La métaphore: un outil pour créer.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X004690" id="X004690"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">Future Coping Strategies Beyond the Constraints of Proprietary Metaphors Brussels, UIA, 15 p. draft.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X007490" id="X007490"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">Catalyzation of New Patterns of Collaboration using a PC-based Structural Outliner as an Imaging Scaffold: project proposal to the Collaborative Studies Competition of the John D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation Brussels, UIA, 15 p. Also published in: <i>Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Munich, SAUR, 1994, pp. 535-536.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X010190" id="X010190"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">Towards an Ecology of Spiritual Traditions as Articulated by a Dynamic System of Metaphors: paper for the World Congress towards Spiritual Concord, Alma-Ata, October 1992 Brussels, UIA. Also published under title: First World Congress towards Spiritual Concord (Alma Ata 1992) in: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 43 (1993), 1, pp. 28-37.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X011390" id="X011390"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">La transdisciplinarité et les volumes: l'articulation des relations entre les disciplines à l'aide des propriétés des polyèdres Brussels, UIA. Also published in: <i>Concepts et outils transdisciplinaires: méthodologies pour la recherche, l'enseignement et le développement</i> Paris, UITF, pp. 75-76. Paper prepared for the Congrès international régional IUTF, Rennes, 1992.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X012690" id="X012690"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">A Conference Towards Spiritual Concord as a Metaphor of Spiritual Concord: notes and reflections Brussels, UIA, approx 70 p. illus.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X012790" id="X012790"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">Entre le local et le global: pour une appréciation des effets réseaux (note de travail relative au concept planétaire) In: <i>Georges Thil (Ed). Transferts de compétences scientifiques et technologiques et leur appropriation; la pertinence des réseaux associatifs</i> Bruxelles, FAST/PRELUDE, DGXII/H/3/CCE, annex 2. Résultats de la réunion du 3 février 1992, à Bruxelles, entre Anthony Judge, Philippe de la Saussay et Georges Thill (FAST,CCE/DGXII).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X013890" id="X013890"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">Thoughts on "Psyche at Work" Brussels, UIA, 6 p. draft.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X015290" id="X015290"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">Institutional Jujitsu: don't fight forces, use them In: <i>Development Alternatives</i> 2, 9, pp. 6-7.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X016790" id="X016790"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">Higher Orders of Inter-Sectoral "Consensus": clarification of formal possibilities: methodology Brussels, UIA, 8 p. 17 annexes. revision 4. Prepared for consideration by the International Facilitating Committee for the Independent Sectors in the UNCED process. Revision 3: 1991, 5 p. 11 annexes.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X016990" id="X016990"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">Geometry of Organizations, Policies and Programmes Brussels, UIA, 3 p. Another version published in: <i>Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Munich, SAUR, 1994, p. 549.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X017390" id="X017390"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">Using Disagreements for Superordinate Frame Configuration Brussels, UIA, 3 p. Another version published in: <i>Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Munich, SAUR, 1994, p. 548.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X019090" id="X019090"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">Configuring Globally and Contending Locally: shaping the global network of local bargains by decoding and mapping Earth Summit inter-sectoral issues: inter-sectoral Dialogue (Rio de Janeiro, 1-2 June 1992) Genève, International Facilitating Committee, approx 55 p. Prepared for the International Facilitating Committee for the Independent Sectors in the UNCED process (Geneva). Inter-sectoral Dialogue DOCUMENTS. Another version published in: <i>Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Munich, SAUR, 1994, pp. 598-605.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X038790" id="X038790"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">Visualizing Relationship Networks: international, interdisciplinary, inter-sectoral: mapping networks of organization/problem relationships, production of an "Atlas of International Relationship Networks", development of a structural outliner (computer programme), tracking the concept structure of conferences Brussels, UIA, 1 p. 17 annexes. Exploration of future issues of information currently held in databases for the production of the Yearbook of International Organizations and the Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X043290" id="X043290"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">Potential and Dilemma of the Earth Summit In: <i>Bridging Worlds</i> III, 6, February-March, pp. 2-16. ISSN 0892-0451. Selected excerpts from a paper entitled 'Research Network on Catalytic Imagery for Governance in Impossible Situations' prepared in connection with the June 1992 UNCED meeting in Rio de Janeiro.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X049090" id="X049090"></a>1992</td><td align="left" valign="top">Comprehending an Ecology of Cultures as Articulated by a Dynamic System of Metaphors Brussels, UIA, 4 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X000190" id="X000190"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Participant Interaction Messaging: proposal for a low-cost, on-site conference communication medium Brussels, UIA, 32 p. Presented to the International Facilitating Committee of the Independent Sectors for UNCED '92 in response to the communication challenges of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 1992). Includes article of same title from <i>Transnational Associations</i> 1980, 1, pp 27-35.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X000290" id="X000290"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Tomorrow's United Nations In: <i>Th Dimitrov (Ed). Tomorrow's United Nations / Les Nations Unies Demain</i> Genève, Foyer Européen de la Culture. Contribution to a round table on the occasion of the 45th Anniversary of the United Nations, organized by the European Cultural Foyer and the Diplomatic Club of Geneva (November 1990).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X005290" id="X005290"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Identity of Europe Articulated by a Dynamic System of Metaphors Brussels, UIA, 5 p. French translation: L'Identité européenne articulée par un système dynamique de métaphores</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X006390" id="X006390"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">A Latin American Identity Articulated by a Dynamic System of Metaphors/L'identité latino-américaine articulée par un système dynamique de métaphores Brussels, UIA, 4 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X007390" id="X007390"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Research Network on Catalytic Imagery for Governance in Impossible Situations Brussels, UIA, 19 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X008190" id="X008190"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Conveying Earth Summit Insights</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X018190" id="X018190"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Aesthetics of Meaning In: <i>Bridging Worlds</i> III, 4, pp. 37-43. ISSN 0892-0451.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X018590" id="X018590"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Metaphors of World Problems and Human Potential In: <i>Bridging Worlds</i> III, 2, pp. 5-19.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X019290" id="X019290"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Higher Orders of Inter-Sectoral "Consensus": clarification of formal possibilities Brussels, UIA, 5 p. 11 annexes. revision 3. Prepared for consideration by the International Facilitating Committee for the Independent Sectors in the UNCED process.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X022090" id="X022090"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">A Canadian Identity Articulated by a Dynamic System of Metaphors/L'identité canadienne articulée par un système dynamique de métaphores Brussels, UIA, 4 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X027290" id="X027290"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Meshing Imaginative Vision and Policy Implementability: the role of metaphor as a vital cognitive interface Brussels, Union of International Association, 3 p. Note on the challenging dilemma of an imaginative response to the policy implications of sustainable development. Another version published in: <i>Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Munich, SAUR, 1994, pp. 594-597.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X027690" id="X027690"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Transformative Conferencing: concepts, notes and papers, problems and possibilities on the new frontier of high-risk gatherings concerning social developemt Brussels, UIA, 218 p. annex.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X029590" id="X029590"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">An Indian Identity Articulated by a Dynamic System of Metaphors Brussels, UIA, 4 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X033290" id="X033290"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Metaphors as Transdisciplinary Vehicles of the Future Brussels, UIA, 25 p. Paper prepared for the Conference on Science and Tradition: transdisciplinary perspectives on the way to the 21st century (Paris, December 1991) organized by the Union des Ingénieurs et des Techniciens utilisant la Langue Française with UNESCO. Abridged version in: <i>Michel Cazenave et Besarab Nicolescu (Eds). La science et le sens</i> Ais-en-Provence, Editions du Mail, 1994, with title: Les métaphores comme véhicules transdisciplinaires de l'avenir. pp. 168-169. Also published in: <i>Congrès Science et Tradition: perspectives transdisciplinaires, ouvertures vers le XXIème siècle à l'UNESCO du 2 au 6 Décembre 1991</i> Paris, Union des ingénieurs et des techniciens utilisant la langue Française, with title: Les métaphores comme véhicules transdisciplinaires d'avenir reliant la science et la tradition.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X037890" id="X037890"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Identity of the United Nations Articulated by a Dynamic System of Metaphors/L'identité des Nations Unies articulée par un système dynamique de métaphores Brussels, UIA, 4 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X043990" id="X043990"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Establishment of an Inter-Sectoral Framework for Dialogue based on Mutal Constraint Brussels, UIA, 3 p. 5 annexes.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X045390" id="X045390"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">A Middle Eastern Identity Articulated by a Dynamic System of Metaphors Brussels, UIA, 4 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X046590" id="X046590"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">A Commonwealth Identy Articulated by a Dynamic System of Metaphors Brussels, Union of International Associations, 4 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X500090" id="X500090"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Gorbachov: Dramaturge ?! Participative Democracy vs Participative Drama; lessons of social transformation for international organizations from Gorbachov Brussels, UIA, 6 p. Also in: <i>Dator, J, et al. Advancing Democracy and Participation Challenges for the Future: selections from the XII World Conference of the World Futures Studies Federation (WFSF)</i> Barcelona, Centre Català de Prospectiva and Centre Unesco de Catalunya, pp. 165-170. Paper prepared for the 12th Conference of the World Futures Studies Federation (Barcelona, September 1991).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X500290" id="X500290"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">Guiding Metaphors and Configuring Choices Brussels, UIA, 22 p. Paper for the Development Administration Division of the United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development (UN/DAD/DTCD) to be presented at a seminar (and in a collection of papers) on "Tools for Critical Choice by Top Decision Makers".</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X934790" id="X934790"></a>1991</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Aesthetics of Governance in the Year 2491 In: <i>Futures</i>, 23, May, 4, pp. 426-436. Paper presented to the 11th World Conference of the World Futures Studies Federation (Budapest, May 1990). Also published in <i>Creativity</i>, UniS Institute Newsletter, 1, 3, March 1991, pp. 1-5. Another version published in: <i>Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Munich, SAUR, 1994, pp. 587-593.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X000385" id="X000385"></a>1990</td><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="transconf" id="transconf">Transformative Conferencing</a>: the re-enchantment of networking through conceptware Brussels, UIA, 14 p. Paper prepared for the 5th Conference of the Electronic Networking Association (San Francisco, May 1990).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X000485" id="X000485"></a>1990</td><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="towordconf" id="towordconf">Towards Another Order of Conferencing</a>: insights into conferencing from the Chinese Book of Changes Brussels, UIA, 18 p. An exploration of alternative perspectives on conference organization taking account of the paradoxical complementarity of conditions necessary for sustainable insight. Adapted from a text in the Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential, which also contains an extensive commentary on the method by which it was derived.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X000585" id="X000585"></a>1990</td><td align="left" valign="top">Towards Another Order of Susatinable Policy Cycles: insights into sustainable development from the Chinese Book of Changes Brussels, UIA, 18 p. An exploration of alternative perspectives on conference organization taking account of the paradoxical complementarity of conditions necessary for sustainable insight. Adapted from a text in the Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential, which also contains an extensive commentary on the method by which it was derived.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X983085" id="X983085"></a>1990</td><td align="left" valign="top">Recontextualizing Social Problems through Metaphor: transcending the "switch" metaphor In: <i>Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire</i>, 68, 3, pp. 531-547. Also in: <i>Transnational Associations</i>, 43, 1, pp. 37-46. Paper prepared for: International Symposium on "How to do things with metaphor" (Brussels, March 1990); abridged version of a paper presented to the International Conference on Demography Issues and Sustainable Development (New Delhi, 1990).</td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X000685" id="X000685"></a>1989</td><td align="left" valign="top">Innovative Global Management through Metaphor Brussels, UIA, 18 p. Paper prepared for the Conference on Social Innovation in Global Management organized by the Weatherhead School of Management of Case Western Reserve University (Cleveland, November 1989).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X000785" id="X000785"></a>1989</td><td align="left" valign="top">Ordering the Undefinable: identifying meaningful patterns of "world problems" Brussels, UIA, 38 p. Paper prepared for a special issue of Multilingua.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X001085" id="X001085"></a>1989</td><td align="left" valign="top">Cooperation and its Failures (from the 1960s through the 1980s): 12 metaphors towards understanding the dilemma of the 1990s Brussels, UIA, 4 p. Note prepared on the occasion of the inaugural meeting of The Hannover Project (Hannover, 1989).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X663885" id="X663885"></a>1989</td><td align="left" valign="top">Through Metaphor to a Sustainable Ecology of Development Policies In: <i>Ilze M Gotelli and Thaddeus C Trzyna (Eds) The Power of Convening: collaborative policy forums for sustainable development</i> Sacramento CA, California Institute of Public Affairs, pp. 64-81. Paper prepared for an international workshop on collaborative policy for sustainable development convened by the Commission on Sustainable Development of IUCN-World Conservation Union, Claremont CA 1989.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X000885" id="X000885"></a>1988</td><td align="left" valign="top">UIA: profile Brussels, UIA, ?? p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X000985" id="X000985"></a>1988</td><td align="left" valign="top">Energy Patterns in Conferences: weaving patterns of information as a context for higher levels of integration Brussels, UIA, 42 p. An exploration of the different patterns of information which may emerge at any time during the course of a meeting -- and the special problems and opportunities to which they may give rise.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X001185" id="X001185"></a>1988</td><td align="left" valign="top">Encyclopedia of Conceptual Insights from the World's Cultures: proposal Brussels, UIA, 8 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X007985" id="X007985"></a>1988</td><td align="left" valign="top">Metaphoric Revolution: in quest of a manifesto for governance through metaphor Brussels, UIA, 28 p. Paper prepared for the 10th World Conference of the World Future Studies Federation (Sept 1988, Beijing) under the auspices of the China Association for Science and Technology, Group 8: Changing political institutions.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X911185" id="X911185"></a>1988</td><td align="left" valign="top">Reordering of Networks of Incommensurable Concepts in Phased Cycles: and their comprehension through metaphor Brussels, UIA, 36 p. Paper prepared for the International Symposium on Models of Meaning (Bulgaria, September 1988) under the auspices of the Institute of Bulgarian Language of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X001285" id="X001285"></a>1987</td><td align="left" valign="top">Networking Consciousness In: <i>UniS; the journal; for discovering universal qualities</i> (UniS Insitute), 1, Summer, 2, pp 5-21. Reproduction of: Networking Alternation.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X001385" id="X001385"></a>1987</td><td align="left" valign="top">Answers In: <i>UniS; the journal for discovering universal qualities</i>, 1, Spring, 1, pp 51-61. Excerpted from Policy Alternation for Development.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X671885" id="X671885"></a>1987</td><td align="left" valign="top">Governance through Metaphor Brussels, UIA, 48 p. Paper submitted to Geneva workshop, June 1987 of the project on Eonomic Apects of Human Development (EAHD) of the Regional and Global Studies Division of the United Nations University. Extensive extracts printed in <i>The USACoR Newletter</i> (USA Club of Rome), 12, March 1988, 1.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X733185" id="X733185"></a>1987</td><td align="left" valign="top">Atlas of International Relationship Network: review of the problems of mapping networks of organization/problem relationship in order to produce an "Atlas" as a complement to the Yearbook of International Organizations and to the Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential Brussels, UIA, 26 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X951785" id="X951785"></a>1987</td><td align="left" valign="top">Reflections on Associative Constraints and Possibilities in an Information Society In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 39, 3, pp 168-182. Report prepared for a workshop held by the UIA with the Federation of International Associations Established in Belgium (November 1986).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X001485" id="X001485"></a>1986</td><td align="left" valign="top">Review of Frameworks for the Representation of Alternate Conceptual Orderings as Determined by Cultural and Linguistic Contexts Brussels, UIA, 54 p. Paper for project on Information Overlaod and Information Underuse (IOIU) of the Global Learning Division of the United Nations University (Area 6: Coding and the socio-cultural context of information).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X031585" id="X031585"></a>1986</td><td align="left" valign="top">Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential Mnchen, K G Saur Verlag, 2nd ed, 1774 p. Edited for the UIA (UIA Publ. No. ???).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X687385" id="X687385"></a>1986</td><td align="left" valign="top">Comprehension of Appropriateness Brussels, Union of International Association, 45 p. Project on Economic Aspects of Human Development (EAHD) of the Regional and Global Studies Division of the United Nations University: paper submitted informally to Rome workshop, September 1986.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X001585" id="X001585"></a>1985</td><td align="left" valign="top">Alternation between Variable Geometries: a brokership style for the United Nations as a guarantee of requisite variety In: <i>Daniel Bardonnet (Ed). The Adaptation of Structures and Methods at the United Nations</i> Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff, pp 243-247. Proceedings of a workshop held by the Hague Academy of International Law and the Univeristy of the United Nations (The Hague, November 1985).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X001685" id="X001685"></a>1985</td><td align="left" valign="top">Remedial Capacity Indicators vs Performance Indicators In: <i>Polska 2000</i> Ossolineum, Special issue on indicators for development, pp. 113-115. Also in: <i>Danecki, Jan (Ed). Insights into Maldevelopment: reconsidering the idea of progress</i> Warsaw, University of Warsaw, pp. 299-305. Paper for a conference of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University on Early Identification of Imminent Dangers in Social Life (Warswa-Jablonna, December 1981)</td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X001780" id="X001780"></a>1984</td><td align="left" valign="top">Patterns of Conceptual Integration Brussels, UIA, 296 p., UIA Publ. 259. Collection of papers presented at meetings of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University (1978-1982).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X001880" id="X001880"></a>1984</td><td align="left" valign="top">Transformative Conferencing: problems and possibilities on the new frontier of high-risk gatherings concerning social development Brussels, UIA, 180 p. UIA Publ. 258. Collection of papers reprinted from the journal Transnational Associations in the light of experience in the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations Unversity (1978-1982) and as a contribution to future intercultural, interdisciplinary initiatives of that kind.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X001980" id="X001980"></a>1984</td><td align="left" valign="top">Forms of Presentation and the Future of Comprehension Brussels, UIA, 232 p. UIA Publ. 261. Collection of papers mainly presented to the Forms of Presentation sub-project of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University (1978-1982).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X002080" id="X002080"></a>1984</td><td align="left" valign="top">From Networking to Tensegrity Organization Brussels, UIA, 282 p. UIA Publ. 263. Collection of papers prepared in response to the concerns of the Networks sub-project of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University (1978-1982).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X002180" id="X002180"></a>1984</td><td align="left" valign="top">Survey of African International Organizations and Participation of African Copuntries in International Organizations Brussels, UIA, 80 p. Presented to the colloquium "The Identity of Associations and the Participation of INGOs in Africa in the Context of the New World Order" (Brussels, October 1984). Prepared from information derived from the African International Organization Directory (1984) and from International Organization Participation produced by the UIA.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X002280" id="X002280"></a>1984</td><td align="left" valign="top">African Languages and African Styles of Organization: beyond Eurocentrism and the Western organizational model In: ??? Brussels, UIA. Note presented to the colloquium "The Identity of Associations and the Participation of INGOs in Africa in the Context of a New World Order" (Brussels, October 1984).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X002380" id="X002380"></a>1984</td><td align="left" valign="top">A 5-fold Pattern Language Brussels, UIA, 50 p. Material proposed for inclusion in World Problems and Human Potential (1985) to be published as Volume 4 of the Yearbook of International Organizations (1985/86).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X002480" id="X002480"></a>1984</td><td align="left" valign="top">Metaphors of Alternation: an exploration of their significance for development policy-making Brussels, UIA, 27 p. Subseqently incorporated into Policy Alternation for Development (1984), pp 175-202.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X002580" id="X002580"></a>1984</td><td align="left" valign="top">Functional Classification In: <i>International Classification</i>, 11, 2, pp 69-76, 3, pp 139-150. Earlier version appeared under the title: Alternation between Development Modes.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X002680" id="X002680"></a>1984</td><td align="left" valign="top">Societal Learning and the Erosion of Collective Memory: the role of international organizations in combatting global amnesia In: <i>Transnational Associations</i>, 36, 2, pp 83-93, bibl. Abridged version of a report for 2nd World Symposium on International Documentation (Brussels, 1980), published under the title Utilisation of International Documentation. Also in: Forms of Presentation and the Future of Comprehension (Collection of papers mainly presented to the Forms of Presentation sub-project of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University, 1978-82). Brussels, UIA, 1984.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X138280" id="X138280"></a>1984</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Territory Construed as a Map: in search of radical design innovations in the representation of human activities and their relationships In: <i>Forms of Presentation and the Future of Comprehension</i> Brussels, UIA, pp. 112-121.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X710080" id="X710080"></a>1984</td><td align="left" valign="top">Liberation of integration: pattern, oscillation, harmony and embodiment In: <i>Patterns of Conceptual Integration</i> Brussels, UIA. Paper for the 5th Network Meeting of the UN University GPID project, Montreal, 1980. In: <i>Collection of papers presented at meetings of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University, 1978-82</i>. Supplemented by: <i>Fugitive Integration: a musical addendum</i> 6 p. Also in: <i>The Community as Disciple Journal: revelation and experiment</i> 1, 3 (1984) pp. 41-47. ISSN 0735-1976. Rev.ed. published under title: Liberation of Integration, Universality and Concord: through pattern, oscillation, harmony and embodiment. Brussels, UIA, 1992, 25 p. annexes.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X718980" id="X718980"></a>1984</td><td align="left" valign="top">Policy Alternation for Development Brussels, UIA, 230 p. UIA Publ. 270. (Papers arising from work in connection with the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University, 1978-1982).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X002780" id="X002780"></a>1983</td><td align="left" valign="top">Networking Alternation: an alternation network of 384 pathways of organizational transformation interpreted for networks in the light of the Chinese Book of Changes In: <i>Transnational Associations</i>, 35, 4, pp 172-181; 5, pp 245-258. Also distributed together as a separate publication.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X002880" id="X002880"></a>1982</td><td align="left" valign="top">Development as Discontinuous Societal Learning: cyclic transformation of the global answer economy Brussels, UIA, 52 p. Prepared for Integrative Working Group B of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University (Colombo, July 1982). An augmented version subsequently appeared under the title: Development through Alternation (1982).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X002980" id="X002980"></a>1982</td><td align="left" valign="top">Conference Transformations: meturing the reflective, focusing and transformative power of large-group conferences, especially in response to conditions of social upheaval In: <i>Transnational Associations</i>, 34, 4, pp. 263-276. Extracts from the introductory report for Commission IV (Meeting Sociology, Dynamics and Practice) of the World Forum of Transnational Associations (Brussels, 1980). Subsequently reproduced in: Transformative Conferencing (1984). Also published in <i>The Community as Disciple Journal: revelation and experiment</i>, 1, 3 (1984) pp. 32-40. ISSN 0735-1976.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X713180" id="X713180"></a>1982</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Future of Comprehension: conceptual birdcages and functional basketweaving In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 34, 6, p.400-404. Also in: Forms of Presentation and the Future of Comprehension (Collection of papers mainly presented to the Forms of Presentation sub-project of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University, 1978-82). Brussels, UIA, 1984.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X714980" id="X714980"></a>1982</td><td align="left" valign="top">Utilisation of International Documentation: introductory report for Panel III In: <i>Th Dimitrov (Ed). International Documents for the 80's; their role and use</i> (Proceedings of the Second World Symposium on International Documentation (Brussels, 1980). New York, Uniflo, (bibl. refs missing). An unpublished French version is available from Th Dimitrov, United Nations Library (Geneva). Abridged version reprinted under the title: Societal Learning and the Erosion of Collective Memory. (The report is based ona critique of the Club of Rome report: No Limits to Learning).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X715080" id="X715080"></a>1982</td><td align="left" valign="top">Alternation Between Development Modes: reinforcing dynamic conception through functional classification of international organizations and their concerns Brussels, UIA, 39 p. In: Amplfied version under the title <i>Functional Classification</i>. Further versions reporduced annually in <i>Global Action Networks</i>, under title <i>Functional Classification: a review of possibilities"</i> Munich, K G Saur Verlag, 1985/86. Paper for a meeting of Integrative Group B of the Goals, Processes and Indicato('rs of Development project of the UNited Nations University (Athens, 1982).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X003180" id="X003180"></a>1981</td><td align="left" valign="top">INTERCONTACT: an on-line information system on international organizations and conferences Brussels, UIA, 52 p. Documentation prepared for a presentation of the system (Brussels, September 1981).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X003280" id="X003280"></a>1981</td><td align="left" valign="top">Beyond Edge-bound Comprehension and Moral Impotence Brussels, UIA, 9 p. Notes prepared for Group B of the project on Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development of the Human and Social Development Programme of the United Nations University (Tokyo, August 1981).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X003380" id="X003380"></a>1981</td><td align="left" valign="top">Integrative Dimensions of Concept Sets: transformation with minimal distortion between implicitness and explicitness of set representations according to constraints on communicability Brussels, UIA, 5 p. Paper prepared for Group B of the project on Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development of the Human and Social Development Programme of the United Nations University (Tokyo, August 1981).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X003480" id="X003480"></a>1981</td><td align="left" valign="top">In Search of Transformational Pathways: bibliography of studies conducted from 1962 to 1981 under the auspices of the UIA and Mankind 2000 In: <i>Transnational Associations</i>, 33, pp 251-259.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X003580" id="X003580"></a>1981</td><td align="left" valign="top">Metaconferencing Possibilities In: <i>Transnational Associations</i>, 33, 2, pp 103-106 Prepared on the occasion of the World Forum of International/Transnational Associations (Brussels, 1980). An introduction to this technique appeared in Transnational Associations, 32, 1980, 10, pp 411-420.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X007580" id="X007580"></a>1981</td><td align="left" valign="top">Transnational Action Yellow Pages Brussels, Union of International Associations, Microfiche ed.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X008880" id="X008880"></a>1981</td><td align="left" valign="top">Directory of National Participation in International Organizations Brussels, Union of International Associations, Microfiche ed.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X015180" id="X015180"></a>1981</td><td align="left" valign="top">Metaconferencing Possibilities In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 33, 2, pp. 102-105. Prepared on the occasion of the World Forum of Transnational Associations, Brussels, 1980.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X036780" id="X036780"></a>1981</td><td align="left" valign="top">Remarks Concerning Planetary Congress 1982 Brussels, UIA, 12 p. Prepared for a Working Conference convened by Planetary Citizens, Stony Point (USA), January 1981.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X040680" id="X040680"></a>1981</td><td align="left" valign="top">Annual International Congress Calendar Brussels, Union of International Associations. Computerization.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X051680" id="X051680"></a>1981</td><td align="left" valign="top">Yearbook of International Organizations Brussels, Union of International Associations. Data bank conversion.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X716780" id="X716780"></a>1981</td><td align="left" valign="top">Anti-developmental biases in thesaurus design In: <i>F W Riggs (Ed) The CONTA Conference: proceedings</i> Frankfurt/Main, Indeks Verlag, pp. 185-201. Paper for UNESCO-sponsored Conference on Conceptual and Terminological Analysis in the Social Sciences, Bielefeld, May 1981</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X717280" id="X717280"></a>1981</td><td align="left" valign="top">Beyond Method: engaging opposition in psycho-social organization Brussels, UIA, 41 p. Paper for meeting on methodology of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University, organized by the Division of System Studies of the University of Bucuresti (Bucharest, December 1981). Reproduced in: <i>Patterns of Conceptual Integration</i> Brussels, UIA (1984).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X004780" id="X004780"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Presentation of GPID Integration Through Functional Classification of International Organizations Brussels, UIA, 6 p. annexes. Note prepared for the 5th Network Meeting of the GPIO Project of the United Nations University, Montreal, 1980.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X005680" id="X005680"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Needs Communication: viable need patterns and their identification In: <i>Katrin Lederer (Ed) in cooperation with Johan Galtung and David Antal. Human Needs: a contribution to the current debate</i> Berlin, ™lgeschlager, Gunn und Hain and Verlagsgruppe Athenaum, Hain, Scriptor und Hanstein. Papers arising from the workshop on human needs of the GPID project of the United Nations University, Berlin, 1978.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X017080" id="X017080"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Metaconferencing: discovering people/viewpoint networks in conferences In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 32, 10, 10 p. Report on an experiment at the conference of the Society for General Systems Research, London, 1979. Based on documents, tables and maps prepared by Stafford Beer, Syd Howell, Alan Mossman and Gordon Pask.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X018280" id="X018280"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Concept Factors in Concept Scheme Integration: GPIO as a case study Brussels, UIA, 7 p. annexes. Prepared for the Integrative Workshop Meeting, Alfaz del Pi 1980, of the GPID Project of the United Nations University.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X020180" id="X020180"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Preliminary Outline of Future Communication Requirements at an International Centre 6 p. Commissioned report.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X022680" id="X022680"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Notes on Vector Equilibrium Brussels, Union of International Associations, approx 20 p. Draft.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X024480" id="X024480"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Comments on Group B Problematique Brussels, UIA, 8 p. Reactions to introductory report on the methodology of United Nations University GPID Project - Group B.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X026880" id="X026880"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Large-Group Conferences: maturing their reflective, focusing and transformative power, especially in conditions of social upheavel Brussels, UIA, 100 p. Preparatory report for a commission on meeting sociology, dynamics and practice of the World Forum of Transnational Associations, Brussels, 1980.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X028080" id="X028080"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Tensing Associative Networks to Contain the Fragmentation and Erosion of Collective Memory Brussels, UIA, 43 p. Prepared for a commission on the role of associations in transnational communication of the World Forum of Transnational Associations, Brussels, 1980. Also published in: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 5, 1981. pp. 311-315. illus.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X030180" id="X030180"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Participant Interaction Messaging: improving the conference process In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 32, 1, pp. 27-35.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X036980" id="X036980"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Yearbook of International Organizations Brussels, Union of International Associations. Computerization and supplements.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X047480" id="X047480"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Minding the Future: a thought experiment on presenting new information Brussels, UIA, 4 p. Prepared for the Forms of Presentation sub-project meeting, Geneva 1980, of the GPID project of the United Nations University.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X049480" id="X049480"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Future of Comprehension: conceptual birdcages and functional basketweaving Brussels, UIA. Paper submitted for the "Conference Volume" of the First Global Conference on the Future, Toronto 1980.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X707980" id="X707980"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Patterns of N-foldness: comparison of integrated multi-set concept schemes as forms of presentation In: <i>Patterns of Conceptual Integration</i> Brussels, UIA, 1984. Paper for a meeting on forms of presentation meeting of the UN University GPID project, Geneva, 1980 in: <i>Collection of papers presented at meetings of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University, 1978-82</i> 1980, 10 p. annexes.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X715680" id="X715680"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Representation, Comprehension and Communication of Sets: the role of number In: <i>International Classification</i> 3 parts. Part 1: 5, 3, 1978, pp. 126-133. Part 2: 6, 1, 1979, pp. 16-25. Part 3: 6, 2, 1979, pp. 92-103. Also in: <i>Patterns of Conceptual Integration</i>. Collection of papers presented at meetings of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University, 1978-82. Also circulated in a pre-publication form by the UN University as HASDR-GIPID-22/UNUP-133, 1980. Presented in an abridged form as <i>Representation of Sets: the role of number</i> in: <i>Ingetraut Dahlberg (Ed). Klassification und Erkenntnis: Proceedings ... der 3 Fachtagung der Gesellschaft fr Klassifikations, Köningstein, 1979; vol 1: Studien zur Klassifikation Bd 4, SK4</i> Frankfurt, Gesellschaft fr Klassifikation, 1979, pp. 27-42.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X716580" id="X716580"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Needs Communication: viable needs patterns and their identification In: <i>Katrin Lederer (Ed) Human Needs; a contribution to the current debate</i> Konigstein, Verlag Anton Hain, 1980, p.279-312. Also in: Forms of Presentation and the Future of Comprehension (Collection of papers mainly presented to the Forms of Presentation sub-project of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University, 1978-82). Brussels, UIA, 1984.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X718380" id="X718380"></a>1980</td><td align="left" valign="top">Integrative Dimensions of Concept Sets: transformations with minimal distortion between implicitness and explicitness of set representation according to constraints on communicability In: <i>Patterns of Conceptual Integration</i> Brussels, UIA, 1984. (Paper for Integrative Group B of the UN University GPID project, Tokyo, 1980) in (Collection of papers presented at meetings of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University, 1978-82).</td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X005975" id="X005975"></a>1979</td><td align="left" valign="top">Meeting Thoughts, Visions and Speculations In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 31, 9, pp. 429-435. Noted for the 1st New Age Congress, Florence, 1978.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X018775" id="X018775"></a>1979</td><td align="left" valign="top">Mobilization of Public Opinion: yesterday's response to today's problems In: <i>Transnational Assocations</i> 1-2, pp. 8-14.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X020875" id="X020875"></a>1979</td><td align="left" valign="top">Development: beyond "science" to "wisdom" - facilitating the emergence of configurative understanding in "Councils of the Wise" through computer conferencing dialogues In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 31, 7-8, pp. 364-372. Presented at the World Futures Studies Federation conference on science, technology and the future, Berlin, 1979. Also published with an erroneous title and page ordering in: <i>Hans Buchholz and Wolfgang Gmelin (Eds). Science and Technology and the Future</i> Munchen, KG Saur Verlag, 1979, pp. 738-762.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X021575" id="X021575"></a>1979</td><td align="left" valign="top">Beyond Childishness Through Symbol-Empowered Tensegrities Brussels, UIA. Article requested by the Green Peace Chronicle for a special issue on the International Year of the Child.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X028275" id="X028275"></a>1979</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Territory Construed as a Map: in search of radical design innovations in the representation of human activities and their relationships Brussels, UIA, 17 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X029975" id="X029975"></a>1979</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Associative Society of the Future In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 31, 6, pp. 259-265. Paper presented at the 20th annual international convention of the International Studies Association, Toronto, March 1979.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X031475" id="X031475"></a>1979</td><td align="left" valign="top">Principles of the Conscientized International Expert In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 31, 11, pp. 543-545.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X041075" id="X041075"></a>1979</td><td align="left" valign="top">Network-Related concepts In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 31, 5, pp. 193-194.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X043075" id="X043075"></a>1979</td><td align="left" valign="top">Report of the Forms of Presentation Geneva, United Nations University Project (GPID), 6 p. Sub-project meeting, Geneva, February 1979.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X046475" id="X046475"></a>1979</td><td align="left" valign="top">Yearbook of International Organizations Brussels, Union of International Associations, 1978-1979 ed. Computerization.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X049375" id="X049375"></a>1979</td><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="compenhcomm" id="compenhcomm">A Computer-Enhanced Communication</a> Environment for an International Conference Center Brussels, Union of International Associations, 175 p. Commissioned report.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X712175" id="X712175"></a>1979</td><td align="left" valign="top">Implementing Principles by Balancing Configurations of Functions: a tensegrity organization approach In: <i>Transnational Associations</i>, 31, 12, pp. 587-591. Also in: <i>From Networking to Tensegrity Organization</i> (Collection of papers prepared in response to the concerns of the Networks sub-project of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University, 1978-82). Brussels, UIA, 1984.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X719575" id="X719575"></a>1979</td><td align="left" valign="top">Groupware Configurations of Challenge and Harmony: an alternative approach to alternative organization In: <i>Richard Ericson (Ed). Improving the Human Condition; quality and stability in social systems</i> Washington DC, Society for General Systems Research, pp. 597-610. Also in: <i>International Associations</i> 31, 10, 1979, pp. 467-475. and in <i>From Networking to Tensegrity Organization</i> (Collection of papers prepared in response to the concerns of the Networks sub-project of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University, 1978-82). Brussels, UIA, 1984. Paper prepared for the international conference of the Society for General Systems Research, London 1979; presented to a workshop on alternative organizations of the European Institute for Advanced Studies in Management, Brussels, June 1979.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X004875" id="X004875"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Complementarity and Tensegrity In: <i>Newsletter of the World Future Studies Federation</i> January, pp. 1-3. Editorial.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X006075" id="X006075"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Organization and Lifestyle Design: characteristics of a nonverbal structural language Brussels, UIA. Paper prepared for the Internationale Konferenz Bedingungen des Lebens in der Zukunft und ihre Folgen fr die Erziehung, Berlin, November 1978.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X008675" id="X008675"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">An Approach to Systematic Classification of Interpersonal Relationships: conceived as essential to alternative lifestyles, social and personal transformation Brussels, UIA, 9 p. annexes.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X008775" id="X008775"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Assessing the Impact of International Associations In: <i>International Associations</i> 30, 10, pp. 435-440.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X010575" id="X010575"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Facilitating the Networking Processes of a Transnational University Using Computer Conferencing In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 30, 4, pp. 205-214. Paper prepared for the 2nd planning meeting of the Global Processes and Indicators for Development project of the United Nations University Human and Social Development Programme.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X015575" id="X015575"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">An Introduction to the (New Age) congress, Florence 1978 In: <i>Congress programme document</i> Florence, 7 p. Also Italian version.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X025375" id="X025375"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Interrelating Viewpoints in Complex Meetings: the Horus wall-display technique In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 30, 12, pp. 542-548.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X027375" id="X027375"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Enhancement of Communication Between Commonwealth Organizations Using Computer Conferencing Techniques Brussels, UIA, 20 p. annexes. Report prepared for the science adviser to the Commonwealth Secretary General in partial fulfilment of a consultancy assignment under the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X030375" id="X030375"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Mapping Possibilities in Response to Information Needs of Science Policy-making for Development Brussels, UIA, 4 p. annexes. Report prepared for the science advisor to the Commonwealth Secretary General in partial fulfillment of a consultancy assignment under the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation. Restructured version appears as: Information Mapping for Development in: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 1979, 5, pp. 185-192.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X030675" id="X030675"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Networking Diseases: speculations towards the development of cures and preventive measures In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 30, 11, pp. 486-490.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X032075" id="X032075"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Emergence of Integrative Processes in a Self-Reflective Assembly In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 30, 5, pp. 271-276.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X037575" id="X037575"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">A Congress that Dared the Unthinkable In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 30, 5, pp. 266-270. Report on the last New Age Congress, Florence, 1978.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X037975" id="X037975"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">De la Difficulté de Saisir la Problématique Mondiale In: <i>Etudes et Expansion</i> 77, 278, Oct-Dec, pp. 701-710.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X039175" id="X039175"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Anti-Networking Strategies In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 30, 11, p. 490.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X039275" id="X039275"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Incapacité de l'Individu A Entreprende Dans son Mode de Vie Personnel In: <i>Modes de vie et changement social en Europe de l'Ouest: colloque européen organisé par l'Association Internationale Futuribles, Septembre 1977</i> Paris, Futuribles, pp. 45-49. Also unpublished English version.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X041275" id="X041275"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Reflections on Development of the Mental Focus Brussels, Mankind 2000, 6 p. Notes touching on aspects of the vision for a centre with this concern.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X048175" id="X048175"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Inter-Organizational Networking In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 30, 10, pp. 429-434. Contributions to an article by D Horton Smith.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X715475" id="X715475"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Tensed Networks: balancing and focusing network dynamics in response to networking diseases In: <i>Transnational Associations</i>, 30, 11, pp. 480-485. Working paper for the Goals Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University Human and Social Development Programme. Also in: From Networking to Tensegrity Organization (Collection of papers prepared in response to the concerns of the Networks sub-project of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University, 1978-82). Brussels, UIA, 1984.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X718275" id="X718275"></a>1978</td><td align="left" valign="top">Transcending duality through tensional integrity In: <i>Transnational Associations</i>, 30, 1978, 5, pp. 248-265. 2 parts. Part 1: A lesson in organization form building design. Part 2: From systems-versus-networks to tensegrity organization. Also in: From Networking to Tensegrity Organization (Collection of papers prepared in response to the concerns of the Networks sub-project of the Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development project of the United Nations University, 1978-82); Brussels, UIA, 1984.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X013375" id="X013375"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">Organizational Terminology and Organizational Types In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 29, 6, pp. 260-283. Extract from: International Organizations: diversity, borderline cases, functional substitutes and possible alternatives.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X014875" id="X014875"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">Organizational Hybrid: transnational network of research and service communities In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 29, 7-8, pp. 306-311. Extract from: Transnational Network of Research- and Service Communities.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X014975" id="X014975"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">System/Network Complementarity In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 29, 9, pp. 365-368. Extract from: International Organization Networks.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X015675" id="X015675"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">A Meeting-related Information Exchange Facility Within a Computer Conferencing Environment 22 p, annexes. Report prepared in response to a request from an Ad Hoc Meeting on Conference Information Systems held on the initiative of the Committee for Information on Science and Technology (CIDSI) of the Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg, September 1977.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X017775" id="X017775"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">Complexity: its constraints on social innovation In: <i>Journées d'études</i> Paris, Fondation Internationale de l'Innovation Sociale, vol 2, 49 p. Introductory reports to Working Group 2 of the Journées d'études of the International Foundation for Social Innovation, Paris, 1977. Unpublished French version circulated separately. The reports appeared separately as follows: 1: Introduction <i>Transnational Associations</i> 29, 4, 1977, pp. 120-123. 2: Presentation of Information and Its Educational Role in Response to Complexity <i>Transnational Associations</i> 29, 4, 1977, pp. 124-125. 3: Organizational Forms in Response to Complexity <i>Transnational Associations</i> 29, 5, 1977, pp. 178-183. 4: Organization of Meetings for Discussion of Complex Issues <i>Transnational Associations</i> 29, 5, 1977, pp. 183-187. 5: Institutional "Games" and Strategies as a Response to Complexity <i>Transnational Associations</i> 29, 5, 1977, pp. 187-189.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X020575" id="X020575"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">Enhancing Transnational Network Action In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 29, 10, pp. 401-448. Special issue: with editorial.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X024675" id="X024675"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">An Alternative Network for Transnational Asset Management: outline proposal Brussels, UIA, 11 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X025875" id="X025875"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">Yearbook of International Organizations Brussels, Union of International Associations.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X027075" id="X027075"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">Organizational Systems Versus Network Organization In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 2 parts. Part 1: 29, 9, pp. 360-364. Part 2: 29, 11, pp. 479-484. Edited transcript of a round table discussion on the distinction, if any, between "system" and "network", Montreal, November 1976.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X030475" id="X030475"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">Facilitating Group Formation In: <i>International Associations</i> 29, 7-8, pp. 302-304.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X030775" id="X030775"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">Networkers and Networking Roles In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 29, 11, pp. 490. Extract from: Transnational Network of Research- and Service Communities.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X030875" id="X030875"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">Knowledge-Representation in a Computer-Supported Environment In: <i>International Classification</i> 4, 2, pp. 76-81. Revised version of: Texts or Concepts; Documentation or Knowledge?.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X042175" id="X042175"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">International Organizations: diversity, borderline cases, functionel substitutes and possible alternatives In: <i>A J R Groom and Paul Taylor (Eds). International Organizations: a conceptual approach</i> London, Frances Pinter, pp. 78-83. Slightly revised version under the title: International Organizations: an overview. In: <i>Yearbook of International Organizations</i> Brussels, Union of International Associations, 1978.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X042375" id="X042375"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">Technical Facilitation of Meeting Dynamics and Participant Inter-action: from conference organization for well-behaved participants to conference organization for the satisfaction of participants In: <i>New Techniques in Congress Organization: proceedings of the 6th International Congress on Congress Organization, Kyoto, December 1975</i> Brussels, UIA, pp. 68-76. Reprinted from: <i>International Associations</i> 28, 1, 1976, pp. 34-37 and 28, 2, pp. 88-93.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X043675" id="X043675"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">Practical Problems in Using the Potential in INGO Networks In: <i>The Future of Transnational Associations from the Standpoint of a New World Order</i> Brussels, UIA, pp. 168-205. Paper to a panel on evaluating and extending public participation in international organizations, at the 18th Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, 16-20 March 1977, St Louis (USA). Also a French version. Reprinted in: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 32, 4, 1980, pp. 180-185 under the title: Problems hindering action of international nongovernmental organizations. Also a French version in: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 32, 3, 1980, pp. 145-159. This paper incorporates and extends: Pseudo-issues paralyzing transnational association action.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X044675" id="X044675"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">Lifestyle Interdependence: context and design Brussels, UIA, 8 p. Paper presented to the European Workshop on Lifestyles and Social Change of the Association Internationale Futuribles, Arc-et-Senans, September 1977.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X044875" id="X044875"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">International Organization Networks: a complementary perspective In: <i>A J R Groom and Paul Taylor (Eds). International Organizations: a conceptual approach</i> London, Frances Pinter, pp. 381-413.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X050375" id="X050375"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Network Alternative In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 29, 9, pp. 352-359. Introductory paper for an exploratory meeting on the network alternative, 18-20 November 1976, Montreal.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X051375" id="X051375"></a>1977</td><td align="left" valign="top">Enhancing Communication at a Large Conference/Festival: Using Computer Conferencing In: <i>Transnational Associations</i> 29, 12, pp. 532-540.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X007275" id="X007275"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Limits to Human Potential Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000, 62 p. Revised extracts printed <i>International Associations</i> 28, 10, 1976, pp. 444-446, and <i>Transnational Associations</i> 29, 4, 1977, pp. 147-150, and in: Large-group Conferences. Earlier version circulated in 1971 under the title: Preliminary Thoughts on Recommendations for Change and Intervention in the World System.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X007875" id="X007875"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Human Development Concepts In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000, 228 concepts.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X009575" id="X009575"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Multinational Business Enterprises In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000. 606 enterprises.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X010775" id="X010775"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Bibliography of Integrative Human Development and Potential In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000, 925 items.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X011775" id="X011775"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential Brussels, Union of International Associations / Mankind 2000, 1136 p. 1st experimental ed. Computerization.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X014275" id="X014275"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Human Values In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000, 704 values.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X015775" id="X015775"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Multilateral Treaties, Conventions and Agreements In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X017675" id="X017675"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">International Agencies and Associations: interrelationships and links to world problems, disciplines, occupations, treaties, etc In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X018375" id="X018375"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Orders of Magnitude In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X020775" id="X020775"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Intergrative, Unitary and Transdisciplinary Concepts: introduction In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X021975" id="X021975"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">National Participation in International Organizations Brussels, Union of International Associations. Unpublished experimental edition (computerization). Summary totals in: <i>Yearbook of International Organizations</i> Brussels, UIA, 1980 (French ed).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X022375" id="X022375"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Integrative, Unitary and Transdisciplinary Concepts In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000, 421 concepts.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X022575" id="X022575"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Bibliography of Integrative, Unitary and Transdisciplinary Approaches In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000, 1850 items.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X025675" id="X025675"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">World Problems and Human Potential: significance and preliminary results of the World Problems Project In: <i>International Associations</i> 28, 2, pp. 102-108. Partially restructured extract from the Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X029275" id="X029275"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Mathematical Analysis of Networks In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X035575" id="X035575"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">World Problems and Human Potential In: <i>World Union</i> 16, 11, November, pp. 18-21. See also: De la Difficulté de Saisir la Problématique Mondiale.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X039575" id="X039575"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Networks of International Associations: occupational categories and world problems In: <i>Preconference Proceedings</i> Philadelphia, Anspach Institute for Diplomacy and Foreign Affairs of the University of Pennsylvania, 22 p. Paper for a conference on international scientific and professional associatons and the international system.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X041375" id="X041375"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Network Organizational Strategy In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000. Also <i>Transnational Associations</i> 28, 8-9, 1976, pp. 396-397.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X042575" id="X042575"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">World Problem Networks as Perceived by International Organization Networks In: <i>General Systems Theorizing: an assessment and aspects for the future</i> Washington DC, Society for General Systems Research, pp. 277-284. Presentation at a panel on modelling and analysis of critical global problems, 20 February 1976, Boston, during the annual North American meeting of SGSR.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X043475" id="X043475"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Future Perspectives of International Organizations Brussels, UIA, 7 p. Background paper for a UNESCO/UNITAR expert meeting on the role of international organizations in the contemporary world, Geneva.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X044575" id="X044575"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Network Map Production In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X046875" id="X046875"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Pseudo-issues Paralyzing Transnational Association Action In: <i>International Associations</i> 28, 12, pp. 571-573. Expanded version of a presentation to a colloquium of the UIA, Geneva, 9-10 November 1976, on the future of transnational associations within the new world order.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X047175" id="X047175"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Concepts of Human Development and Potential: introduction In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000, 7 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X049575" id="X049575"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Use of Interactive Graphic Display Techniques In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X050475" id="X050475"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Problem Humour and Miscellanea In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X051275" id="X051275"></a>1976</td><td align="left" valign="top">Intellectual Disciplines and Sciences In: <i>Yearbook of World Problems and Human Potential</i> Brussels, UIA/Mankind 2000, 1845 diciplines.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X003975" id="X003975"></a>1975</td><td align="left" valign="top">An Information Centre on Social Innovation Paris, The Foundation, 4 p. Presentation to a study meeting of the International Foundation for Social Innovation, 25-26 September 1975.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X009975" id="X009975"></a>1975</td><td align="left" valign="top">World Problems and Human Potential: a date interlinkage and display process In: <i>Futures</i> 7, 3, June, pp. 209-220. An earlier French version exists under the title: Problèmes Mondiaux et Potentiel Humain: un exercise de collecte et de présentation des données. <i>International Associations</i> 27, 8-9, 1975, pp. 416-4.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X012375" id="X012375"></a>1975</td><td align="left" valign="top">Facilitative Environments for Personal Development Brussels, Mankind 2000, 216 p. Papers arising out of a postal symposium. Includes: Transnational Network of Research- and Service Communities, pp. 111-138.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X013075" id="X013075"></a>1975</td><td align="left" valign="top">State Size and Independence in the Future In: <i>International Associations</i> 27, pp. 89-96. Tables correct in content but incorrectly presented.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X028675" id="X028675"></a>1975</td><td align="left" valign="top">Preliminary Notes on the Mathematical Analysis of Networks of Psychosocial Entities in Order to Facilitate their Comprehension Brussels, UIA, 10 p. Xeroxed.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X029775" id="X029775"></a>1975</td><td align="left" valign="top">Meeting Psychosocial Dynamics: proposed for World Forum on Social Innovation In: <i>International Associations</i> 27, 1, pp. 45-48.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X038275" id="X038275"></a>1975</td><td align="left" valign="top">Thoughts on Sacred Places Brussels, Mankind 2000, 4 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X046075" id="X046075"></a>1975</td><td align="left" valign="top">Traduction Expérimentale/Translation Experiment In: <i>Le Problème du Langage dans la Société Internationale</i> Brussels, UIA, pp. 240-260. Results of translating English and French original texts back from 8 non-indo-european languages.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X046275" id="X046275"></a>1975</td><td align="left" valign="top">International Standard Book Numbering and International Organizations - Group 92 In: <i>International Associations</i> 27, 10, pp. 481-485. Edited and restructured version of Unesco material.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X047875" id="X047875"></a>1975</td><td align="left" valign="top">Le Problème du Langage dans la Société Internationale Brussels, UIA, 266 p. Compte rendu du colloque organisé par l'UAI à Paris, Mars 1974, en association avec le Comité pour l'Analyse des Concepts et de la Terminologie ( COCIA). Editor of Documents Preparatoires, pp. 114-264, many of which appeared in a special issue of <i>International Associations</i> 26, 3/4, 1974.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X050675" id="X050675"></a>1975</td><td align="left" valign="top">Transnational Associations and Their Functions In: <i>A J R Groom and Paul Taylor (Eds). Functionalism, Theory and Practice in International Relations</i> London, University of London Press, pp. 190-224.</td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X005170" id="X005170"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Harmonizing Viewpoint: the harmony of interaction - and the facilitation of network processes In: <i>G M Dalen and Clyde R Tipton Jr (Eds). The Dilemma Facing Humanity: proceedings of an international symposium, 1974, May 19-21, Spokane, USA</i> Columbus, Battle Memorial Institute, pp. 47-53. Reprinted <i>Transnational Associations</i> 26, 11, 1974, pp. 538-543.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X006270" id="X006270"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">New UN Action on INGOs In: <i>International Associations</i> 26, February, pp. 110.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X011270" id="X011270"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Acquisition and Organization of International Documentation - L'Acquisition et l'Organisation de la Documentation Internationale In: <i>International Federation for Documentation: sources, organization and utilization of international documentation</i> Den Haag, FID, pp. 112-144 (English), pp. 145-181 (French). Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Documentation of the United Nations, Geneva, 21-23 August 1972. FID publ 506. (UNITAR/EUR/SEM1/WPII/IR).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X011470" id="X011470"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Yearbook of International Organizations Brussels, Union of International Associations. Computerization and supplements.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X013270" id="X013270"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Texts or Concepts; Documentation or Knowledge? In: <i>International Associations</i> 26, 4, pp. 205-208. Revised extract from: Relationship Between Elements of Knowledge.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X022970" id="X022970"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">A Communication Tool for Meeting Participants In: <i>International Associations</i> 26, February, pp. 119-120.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X023570" id="X023570"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Networking: the need for a new concept In: <i>International Associations</i> 26, 3, pp. 170-173.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X025070" id="X025070"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">La Carte des Menaces In: <i>Le Monde Diplomatique</i> Mars. Special issue. Résumé d'une conférence faite au colloque internationale sur la perception nouvelles des menaces, Paris, 1973.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X034270" id="X034270"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Revised Notes on the Proposed Conference Series on Social Catalysis to be held under the Auspices of Mankind 2000 in Paris Brussels, Mankind 2000, 9 p. A first set of notes (1 to 5) was prepared on behalf of Mankind 2000 and discussed in Paris on January 25th. The enclosed notes (6 to 8) represent the revision of the concept as presented. Notes 4 and 5 remain basically unchanged.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X034870" id="X034870"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">NGO Interventions In: <i>International Associations</i> 26, 10, pp. 460-467 At the ECOSOC Committee on NGOs, plus illustrative material on the ECOSOC policy on multinational corporations.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X036570" id="X036570"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Comments on the UN Secretary-General's Unofficial Draft Report on Improving Coordination and Liaison with Nongovernmental Organizations Paper prepared for the preparatory conference of experts on the role of non-governmental organizations, Fredensborg, 1974, 3 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X037370" id="X037370"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Conceptual Gaps and Confused Distinctions: possible ambiguities in the translation of interrelated concepts In: <i>International Associations</i> 26, 3, pp. 156-159.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X041670" id="X041670"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Categorical Straitjackets: PO - a suggestion for a depatterning device for international organization descriptions In: <i>International Associations</i> 26, 3, pp. 148-150.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X043570" id="X043570"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Social Science Terminology and Conceptual Problems of Translation In: <i>International Associations</i> 26, 4, pp. 210-212.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X044470" id="X044470"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Conceptual Distortions form Negative Descriptors: the possibility that "nongovernmental" may be comprehended as "antigovernmental" in some languages In: <i>International Associations</i> 26, 3, pp. 150-155.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X045470" id="X045470"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Languages Terminology and Mindsets In: <i>International Associations</i> 26, 4, pp. 219-225.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X046970" id="X046970"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Description of Social Transmutation Conference Brussels, Mankind 2000, 17 p. Conference organized in Paris, June 1975 by Société Internationale des Synthèse under the auspices of Mankind 2000. Earlier versions used the terms social engineering and social catalysis in the title.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X047670" id="X047670"></a>1974</td><td align="left" valign="top">Groups and Networks by Yona Friedman In: <i>International Associations</i> 26, 5, pp. 274-283. Adapted from a French version applied to individuals.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X006170" id="X006170"></a>1973</td><td align="left" valign="top">Toward a Concept Inventory: suggestions for a computerized procedure Brussels, UIA, 68 p. Also published in: <i>International Associations</i> 1974, pp. 164-168.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X006770" id="X006770"></a>1973</td><td align="left" valign="top">Mobilization for Alienation vs Catalysis for Participation: the critical choice for the United Nations System In: <i>International Associations</i> 25, August-September, pp. 407-412. Slightly revised version reprinted under the title: Mobilization of Public Opinion: yesterday's reponse to today's problems <i>Transnational Associations</i> 31, 1/2, 1979, pp. 8-14.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X009470" id="X009470"></a>1973</td><td align="left" valign="top">UN Environment Programme Wastes NGO Resources: how to butcher the "Spirit of Stockholm" In: <i>International Associations</i> 25, August-September, pp. 414-420.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X023270" id="X023270"></a>1973</td><td align="left" valign="top">Notes on the Networking Concept as Applied to Information Systems Brussels, UIA, 11 p. Prepared for a conference on the networking concept of the International Referral Service of the United Nations Environment Programme, Heidelberg.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X024870" id="X024870"></a>1973</td><td align="left" valign="top">Time for a Mini-Jackson Report? In: <i>International Associations</i> 25, August-September, pp. 429-430.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X028870" id="X028870"></a>1973</td><td align="left" valign="top">Problem Disguises In: <i>International Associations</i> 25, April, pp. 233-239.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X035370" id="X035370"></a>1973</td><td align="left" valign="top">Yearbook of International Organizations Brussels, Union of International Associations, 1972-1973 ed. Computerization and Supplements.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X037670" id="X037670"></a>1973</td><td align="left" valign="top">UN-NGO Relations: a new departure? In: <i>International Associations</i> 25, August-September, pp. 421-423.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X040970" id="X040970"></a>1973</td><td align="left" valign="top">Human Organizations/Organisations humaines In: <i>International Associations</i> 25, November, pp. 357-541.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X046370" id="X046370"></a>1973</td><td align="left" valign="top">Inter-organizational relationships: in search of a new style In: <i>The Open Society: report of a seminar to reflect on the network of International Associations</i> Brussels, UIA, pp. 115-132. Also French, Italian, Spanish, Dutch and German versions.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X048470" id="X048470"></a>1973</td><td align="left" valign="top">Managing Planetary Management In: <i>International Associations</i> 25, January, pp. 26-27.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X048970" id="X048970"></a>1973</td><td align="left" valign="top">Principles of Transnational Action: an attempt at a set of guidelines In: <i>International Associations</i> 25, March, pp. 138-144. rev ed. Also in: <i>The Open Society: report of seminar to reflect on the network of international associations</i> Brussels, UIA, 1973, pp. 104-114. Also French, Dutch, Spanish, Italian and German editions.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X050870" id="X050870"></a>1973</td><td align="left" valign="top">Transnational Network of Research- and Service Communities: a proposal for an organizational hybrid Brussels, UIA, 21 p. annexes. Paper presented to the Rome Special Futures Conference, September 1973. Also in: <i>Proceedings</i> Rome, Irades, 1974. Also reprinted in: Facilitative Environments for Personal Development.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X004270" id="X004270"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">International NGO Groupings In: <i>Yearbook of International Organizations</i> Brussels, UIA, 14th ed (1972-1973). Also in 15th ed (1974).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X005570" id="X005570"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">Summary of Functions Performed by NGO Conferences In: <i>International Associations</i> 24, June-July, pp. 360-361.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X009070" id="X009070"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">Note on the Comparative Evaluation of Different Types of International Organizations Paris, UNESCO, 9 p. Prepared for the Unesco expert meeting on international organization studies, Paris</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X010070" id="X010070"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">An NGO Collective Long-Term Objective IN: <i>International Associations</i> 24, March, pp. 151-154. Revised extract from: International Organizations and the Generation of the will to Change - the Information System required</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X011970" id="X011970"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">A New Approach to World Problems In: <i>International Associations</i> 24, October, pp. 475-479.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X018970" id="X018970"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">Bibliography of Documents on Transnational Association Networks: international nongovernmental organizations as a field of study In: <i>Yearbook of International Organizations</i> Brussels, UIA, 1973 ed, pp 903-919 (approx 800 items). Also in 1974 ed.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X019770" id="X019770"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">Wrecking an International Project: 114 notes from a saboteur's vade mecum In: <i>International Associations</i> 24, October, pp. 487-490. Also in: <i>Urban Social Change Review</i> 5, 2, Spring 1972.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X019870" id="X019870"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">Mapping World Problems In: <i>International Associations</i> 24, August-September, pp. 414-417.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X020370" id="X020370"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">Summary of the Crises in International Relationships at the International Level In: <i>International Associations</i> 24, May, pp. 287-295. Revised extract from: The Next Step in Inter-organizational Relationships.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X022270" id="X022270"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">World Problems and Human Development Brussels, UIA. Earlier version circulated under the title: World Problems: outline proposal for a data collection project on "world problems".</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X027970" id="X027970"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">Shared NGO Services: an analysis of a feasibility study for an international centre In: <i>International Associations</i> 24, March, pp. 155-157.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X031170" id="X031170"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">Transnational Association Networks: selected list of research topics on international nongovernmental organizations In: <i>International Associations</i> 24, October, pp. 481-485.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X034970" id="X034970"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">Des Principes de l'Action Transnationale In: <i>International Associations</i> 24, August-September, pp. 402-406.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X036270" id="X036270"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">Internationally-oriented Institutes In: <i>Yearbook of International Organizations</i> Brussels, UIA, 14th ed (1972-1973). Also in: 15th ed (1974) and 17th ed (1978-1979).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X040870" id="X040870"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">Statistics on International Organizations In: <i>Yearbook of International Organizations</i> Brussels, UIA, 14th ed (1972-1973). Also in: 15th ed (1974), 17th ed (1978-1979), 18th ed (1980), 19th ed (1981).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X041570" id="X041570"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">IGO-INGO and INGO-INGO Relations: a possible aproach In: <i>International Associations</i> 24, May, pp. 284-286 Revised from: International Organizations and the Generation of the Will to Change - the Information Systems Required</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X042970" id="X042970"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">The World Network of Organizations: a symbol for the 1970s In: <i>International Associations</i> 24, January, pp. 18-24.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X047570" id="X047570"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">Internationally-oriented Foundations In: <i>Yearbook of International Organizations</i> Brussels, UIA, 14th ed (1972-1973). Also in 15th ed (1974) and 17th ed (1978-1979).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X048070" id="X048070"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">Nature of Organization in Transnational Networks Brussels, UIA. Paper submitted to a session of the International Studies Association, 13th annual convention, Dallas, March 1972. Modified abridged version.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X050570" id="X050570"></a>1972</td><td align="left" valign="top">International Nongovernmental Organizations Most Frequently Recognized by Intergovernmental Organizations In: <i>Yearbook of International Organizations</i> Brussels, UIA, 14th ed (1972-1973). Also in 15th ed (1974).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X006470" id="X006470"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">Notes on the Design of an Information System to Facilitate the Production of Concept Thesauri by Different School of Thought 5 p. Prepared for a meeting of the International Studies Association, Bellagio, December 1971. Xeroxed. Later Expanded into: Relationship Between Elements of Knowledge.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X012870" id="X012870"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">Discrimination and Fragmentation in the 1970s: an organized response to global crisis In: <i>International Associations</i> 23, January.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X014170" id="X014170"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Next Step in Inter-organizational Relationships: the use of information, rather than organizations, as the foundation for the inter-organizational activity of the future Brussels, Union of International Associations, 90 p. UAI Study Papers ORG/1.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X014770" id="X014770"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">A Human Rights Index?: analysis of the signature and ratifications of the international human rights convention In: <i>International Associations</i> Brussels, 23, November, pp. 545-553.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X019470" id="X019470"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">Computer-Aided Visualization of Psycho-Social Structures: peace as an evolving balance of conceptual and organizational relationships Brussels, UIA, 34 p. Paper presented to a symposium on value and knowledge requirements for peace of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Philadelphia, December 1971. Xeroxed.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X024570" id="X024570"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">What is a World Problem?: a new project of the UAI - Yearbook of World Problems In: <i>International Associations</i> 23, May, pp. 269-273.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X025770" id="X025770"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">Inter-organizational Data and Data Bank Design 20 p. Paper presented to the Workshop on International Organization Data, jointly sponsored by International Studies Association, Union of International Associations and United Nations Institute for Training and Research, Puerto Rico, March 1971.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X027870" id="X027870"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">From Apartheid to Schizophrenia: ecological ignorance and the logic of depersonalized separate development In: <i>International Associations</i> 23, 2, pp. 89-102.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X028770" id="X028770"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">Quo Vadis UNO?: a review of the issues raised by the Club of Rome study of "world dynamics" In: <i>International Associations</i> 23, October, pp. 469-481. Includes annotated conclusions of the study.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X034070" id="X034070"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">Management and Assessment of Financial Resources In: <i>International Associations</i> 23, May, pp. 287-293. Complementary note to a report on the financial problems of international nongovernmental organizations, presented to the Sixteenth Conference of International Organizations for the Joint Study of Programmes and Activities in the Field of Agriculture in Europe, Paris, February 1971, European Commission on Agriculture, FAO, ECA, io/16/71, 1.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X034670" id="X034670"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">The UN System's Ivory Tower Strategy; and the Death Knell of INGO Consultative Status In: <i>International Associations</i> February, pp. 28-48.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X036070" id="X036070"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">Proposal for the Development of a "World Game" as a Long-Term Educational Technique Brussels, UIA, 7 p. Document submitted to a session of the 4th Conference on General Systems Education, April 1971.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X038470" id="X038470"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">Universal Declaration of the Rights of Human Organizations: an experimental extention of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights In: <i>International Associations</i> 23, January, pp. 7-27. Also in an abridged version: International Associations, 25, December 1973, pp. 623-627.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X040370" id="X040370"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">A World in Distress: a model of fragmented social development In: <i>International Associations</i> 23, 2, pp. 107-108.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X042670" id="X042670"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">World Dynamics and Psychodynamics: a step toward making abstract "world system" dynamic limitations meaningful to the individual Brussels, UIA, 20 p. Xeroxed.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X050970" id="X050970"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">Information Systems and Inter-organizational Space In: <i>Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science</i> 193, pp. 47-64. Special issue on social development.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X052670" id="X052670"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Use of "Multi-meetings": proposal for improvement to NGO/UN relationships In: <i>International Associations</i> 23, June, pp. 354-359. Revised extract from: The Next Step in Inter-organizational relationships.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X053270" id="X053270"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">Wanted: new types of social entity In: <i>International Associations</i> 23, March. The Role of the "Potential Association", pp. 148-152. Matrix Organization and Organizational Networks, pp. 154-170 (Revised extract from: The Next Step in Inter-organizational relationships.)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X053370" id="X053370"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">Types of Problem In: <i>International Associations</i> 23, June, pp. 332-334.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X805970" id="X805970"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">Relationship Between Elements of Knowledge: use of computer systems to facilitate construction, comprehension and comparison of the concept thesauri of different schools of thought Brussels, UIA, 150 p. Committee on Conceptual and Terminological Analysis of the International Political Science Association, Working Paper 3. Revised and Abridged as: Toward a Concept Inventory: suggestions for a computerized procedure. Presented to Research Committee 1, 9th Congress, International Political Science Academy, Montreal, 1973, 67 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X806070" id="X806070"></a>1971</td><td align="left" valign="top">Criteria for a Meta-Model Brussels, UIA, 4 p. Document submitted to a session of the 4th Conference on General Systems Education, Connecticut, April 1971.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X008370" id="X008370"></a>1970</td><td align="left" valign="top">Communication and International Organizations In: <i>International Associations</i> 22, February, pp. 57-79. Revised version of a paper entitled: The Impact of the Computer/Communication/Information Revolution on Nongovernmental Organizations and Their Members During the Second UN Development Decade (1970-1980) and in the Foreseeable Future. Geneva, 1969, 15 p. 11/GC/21. Circulated at the Conference of Non-Governmental Organizations in Consultative Status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X014370" id="X014370"></a>1970</td><td align="left" valign="top">Visualization of the Organizational Network: the UAI as an international data bank In: <i>UIA 1910-1970: past, present, future</i> Brussels, UIA, 1970, pp. 88-116. Also in French, Dutch, Italian, Spanish and German versions. French version also appeared in: <i>Synthèse</i> 25, 288, Juin 1970, pp. 72-95 and in: <i>International Associations</i> 22, 5, 1970, pp. 265-268.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X024070" id="X024070"></a>1970</td><td align="left" valign="top">Visualization of Organization Brussels, UIA. 16 mm film.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X026370" id="X026370"></a>1970</td><td align="left" valign="top">International Organizations and the Generation of the Will to Change - the Information Systems Required: a study of some of the implications of the Jackson Report Pearson Report CESI Report SATCOM Report (in terms of the total network of organizations making up the world system and the complex network of interacting problem areas Brussels, Union of International Associations, 89 p + appendixes. UAI Study Papers INF/5. Extracts also published under the title: Planning for the 1960s in the 1970s <i>International Associations</i> 22, 3, 1970, pp. 135-153 and <i>International Associations</i> 22, 4, 1970, pp. 221-226 and <i>International Associations</i> 22, 6/7, pp. 355-361.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X029870" id="X029870"></a>1970</td><td align="left" valign="top">Overlap Between NGO Information Systems In: <i>International Associations</i> 22, 3, pp. 163-164.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X049870" id="X049870"></a>1970</td><td align="left" valign="top">Development of Trans-disciplinary Conceptual Aids: simple techniques for education, research, pre-crisis management, and program administration highlighting patterns of information transaction and sub-system interdependence Brussels, UIA, 13 p. Project proposal also published in: New Haven, Center for Interdisciplinary Creativity, Southern Connecticut State College. Also in French as: Le Développement des Moyens Conceptuels Transdisciplinaires: techniques simples pouvant servir à l'enseignement, la recherche, la gestion avant crise et la mise en service de programmes mettant l'accent sur des systèmes de transferts d'information et l'interdépendance de sous-systèmes, International Associations, 24, November 1972, pp. 528-536.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X758770" id="X758770"></a>1970</td><td align="left" valign="top">Development of Trans-Disciplinary Conceptual Aids: simple techniques for education, research, pre-crisis management, and program administration highlighting patterns of information transaction and sub-system interdependence Brussels, UIA, 13 p. plus annexes.</td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X005465" id="X005465"></a>1969</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Improvement of Communication Within the World-system: research uses, applications and possibilities of a computer-based information centre on national and international organizations and related entities Brussels, Union of International Associations, 196 p. bibl. appendixes. UIA Study Papers INF/2.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X025265" id="X025265"></a>1969</td><td align="left" valign="top">Organization Manual for International Non-profit Organizations In: <i>European Commission on Agriculture: Fifteenth conference of international organizations for the joint study of programmes and activities in the field of agriculture in Europe, Paris, France, 18-21 February 1969</i> Rome, FAO, pp. 3-7. ECA/10/15/69. Organization of a seminar for staff members of international non-governmental organizations. Reprinted in <i>International Associations</i> 21, May 1969, pp. 263-267.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X029165" id="X029165"></a>1969</td><td align="left" valign="top">Organizational Apartheid: who needs whom in the Second United Nations Development Decade? In: <i>International Associations</i> 21, October, pp. 451-450. Earlier version circulated under the title: Need for a World Management Information Network to Assist Initiation and Coordination of Global Development Programmes. UIA Study Papers INF/1.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X033365" id="X033365"></a>1969</td><td align="left" valign="top">Inter-Contact: an information centre and a technique; describing of a planned computer-based information centre on international and national organizations and related entities Brussels, Union of International Associations, 37 p. UAI Study Papers, INF/4. Also a French version (INF/3).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X034565" id="X034565"></a>1969</td><td align="left" valign="top">Contribution of the UIA to UNESCO Programmes for Peace In: <i>International Associations</i> 21, November, pp. 521-527.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X038565" id="X038565"></a>1969</td><td align="left" valign="top">International NGO Groupings In: <i>International Associations</i> 21, February, pp. 89-97.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X047265" id="X047265"></a>1969</td><td align="left" valign="top">General Systems, Education and the Relevance of World System Data Banks and the Inter-Contact Technique Brussels, UIA. Background paper for a symposium of the Task Force on Systems Education at the Annual Meeting of the Society for General Systems Research, Boston, December 1969.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X047365" id="X047365"></a>1969</td><td align="left" valign="top">Evaluation of International Organizations: the need, current efforts, qualitive and quantitive methods In: <i>International Associations</i> 21, March, pp. 141-147. bibl. Extract from: Report of a Preliminary Investigation of the Possibility of Using Computer Data Processing Methods (1966).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X051765" id="X051765"></a>1969</td><td align="left" valign="top">Case Studies in Planetary Management: suggestion forwarded to the International Association of Students of Business and Economics (AIESEC) on the occasion of the World Conference on the International Transfer of Management Skills, Turin, 17-21 November, 1969 Brussels, UIA, 5 p.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X006865" id="X006865"></a>1968</td><td align="left" valign="top">Classification of International and National Organizations and the Relationship between Them with Special Reference to International Non-profit Organizations Brussels, UIA, 26 p. plus 15 exhibits. Xeroxed. Extract from vol 2 of: Report of a Preliminary Investigation of the Possibility of Using Computer Data Processing Methods.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X009365" id="X009365"></a>1968</td><td align="left" valign="top">The Governmental Support of International Nongovernmental Organizations: surveys / Les Contributions Gouvernementales aux Organisations Internationales Nongouvernementales: analyse In: <i>International Associations</i> 20, July, pp. 468-473 (English), pp. 477-508 (French).</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X015865" id="X015865"></a>1968</td><td align="left" valign="top">Multinational Business Enterprises In: <i>Yearbook of International Organizations</i> Brussels, UIA, 12th ed (1968-1969) with tables updated in 13th ed (1970-1971). Abridged version in: <i>International Associations</i> 21, January 1969, pp 3-11 and in: <i>Prospect</i> AISEC International, 4, Autumn 1969.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X036865" id="X036865"></a>1968</td><td align="left" valign="top">Note on the Possible Use of Computers and Data Processing Equipment by International Non-governmental Organizations Brussels, Federation of International Associations Established in Belgium, 14 p. French version published in: <i>International Associatons</i> 21, June-July 1969, pp. 329-339.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X805865" id="X805865"></a>1968</td><td align="left" valign="top">Functional Synthesis of Viewpoints: a conceptual model Brussels, UIA, 40 p. diagrams. Privately distributed in xeroxed form.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X035465" id="X035465"></a>1967</td><td align="left" valign="top">Management Game Techniques and International NGOs In: <i>International Associations</i> 19, pp. 659-665.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X014565" id="X014565"></a>1966</td><td align="left" valign="top">Report of a Preliminary Investigation of the Possibility of Using Computer Data Processing Methods Brussels, Union of International Associations. 2 vols. xeroxed. Vol 1: Main Report, 58 p + exhibits. Vol 2: Appendix 1: Analysis of Internal and External Factors Which May Influence the Future of the Organization, 117 p + exhibits.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X010365" id="X010365"></a>1965</td><td align="left" valign="top">International Cooperation, Communications and Sources of Information London, 7 p. Privately distributed in stencilled form.</td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X021160" id="X021160"></a>1964</td><td align="left" valign="top">Proceedings of International Meetings: analysis of a bibliography In: <i>International Associations</i> August, pp. 462-471.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X045760" id="X045760"></a>1964</td><td align="left" valign="top">Bibliography of Proceedings of International Meetings Brussels, Union of International Associations under contract to the US National Science Foundation, 400 p. Meetings for 1958.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X022760" id="X022760"></a>1963</td><td align="left" valign="top">Yearbook of International Organizations Brussels, Union of International Associations, 1962-1963 ed.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X040260" id="X040260"></a>1963</td><td align="left" valign="top">Annual International Congress Calendar Brussels, Union of International Associations.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X051860" id="X051860"></a>1963</td><td align="left" valign="top">Bibliography of Proceedings of International Meetings Brussels, Union of International Associations under contract to the US National Science Foundation, 388 p. Meetings for 1957.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top"><a name="X021260" id="X021260"></a>1962</td><td align="left" valign="top">The UIA In: <i>World Union Bulletin</i> 2, June, pp. 40-43</td></tr> </tbody></table> </div> Wed, 10 Apr 2013 14:33:05 +0000 rachele 1915 at https://uia.org https://uia.org/archive/research-papers#comments